Key Takeaways  The Ganges is one of the 10 most polluted rivers in the world. Pollutants come from human activity along the riverbanks, with three quarters of it coming from sewage and waste disposal. Cremation alongside the banks if incomplete, adds decomposing corpses and body parts to the water.India's great Ganges, the 1,569-mile holy river that rises in the Himalayas and traverses northern India before emptying into the Bay of Bengal, is now at the point of ultrapollution. As a lifeline to hundreds of millions of people, it supplies drinking, bathing and irrigation water that sustains life.However, Ganges river pollution puts both people and wildlife at risk of disease and toxic waste. In the same way that people are littering the world's highest peak, human pressure has made the Ganges one of the ten most polluted rivers in the world. River clean up is vital.River Ganges in Indian LifeThe River Ganges supports many areas of life in India. Hindus consider the river as holy, and as such, it supports ceremonial functions along its length. Not only is the water believed to be sacred and purifying, but the river itself forms an important part of the death ritual. Cremation alongside the Ganges and scattering ashes into the waters ensures passage into the afterlife for believers.For the living, bathing in the Ganges is purifying, both physically and through spiritually washing away sins. Each year, devotees gather along the river to worship and scatter offerings.The river and its many tributaries also support basic water needs for populations along its course. According to a BioMed Central article, around 400 million people draw water for bathing, cooking and agriculture from the river, often very close to where sanitation drains empty sewage and industrial effluent into the water course. As populations increase, pressure on the river rises, and Ganges river pollution hits critical levels.Sources of Ganges River PollutionPollutants come from human activity along the riverbanks, with more than one billion gallons of waste entering each day, according to The New Yorker. Alteration in water flow from dams and irrigation canals, where reduced flow causes stagnation and concentration, compounds the problem.Three-quarters of this is organic, coming from human sewage and waste disposal. A Reuters infographic notes the volume as around 4.8 billion liters (almost 1.3 billion gallons) of sewage every day, exceeding the treatment capacity of only one billion liters per day.Pipes discharge raw, untreated sewage directly into the Ganges. As a 2016 report showed, only 78% of India's sewage is treated. At heavily populated outflows, the levels of fecal coliforms — an indication of raw sewage contamination — are hundreds of times higher than safe limits. In 2016, 41 out of the 45 sampling stations along the river showed concentrations exceeding maximum levels. Often, sewage treatment also fails to effectively remove pathogens, so the risk of contracting diseases — such as amoebic dysentery, hepatitis A and typhoid — from bathing in the Ganges is high.Dumping household garbage into waste sites that are prone to flooding during monsoons washes trash into the river. Industry and agricultural run-off also pollute the water. Tanneries along the banks use heavy metals, such as chromium and arsenic, to treat water buffalo hides. Although legislation to promote effluent treatment is in place, discharge often results in river contamination.Cremation alongside the banks is commonn and this contributes to Ganges river pollution as well. Firewood needed to complete cremation is expensive, and for many, being interred in the river after death leads to religious salvation. Decomposing bodies and body parts are common among the floating garbage and toxic foam, according to a Pulitzer Center report.River Clean Up UrgencyAside from increased disease from waterborne pathogens and visible pollution from floating garbage and decomposing corpses, people using the river also risk developing cancer from toxins. Cleaning up the Ganges has thus been a priority since the 1980s.India's top environmental court, the National Green Tribunal, also imposed a ban on dumping within 1,640 feet (0.5 km) of a 310-mile heavily polluted stretch. A 2017 BBC report also mentions fines for waste disposal into the river and the movement of tanneries away from its banks.Governments have imposed limits on tannery wastewater, requiring treatment prior to discharge. They've also driven efforts to modernize sewage treatment in big cities. According to The Conversation, increased population density in big cities translates into worse fecal contamination. Although the intention to modernize is there, efforts are slow moving, partly due to failing infrastructure and the complexity of installing modern systems in ancient architecture. Ancient doesn't always mix well with modern and, as a result, a river is being poisoned.At Northrop Grumman we're designing, developing, building and supporting advanced products. This includes those used for environmental monitoring; learn more about our water solutions, for monitoring and cleaning waste.

Human Pressure Drives Ganges River Pollution

Evidence for ongoing climate change is growing, and historical data show that humans should be worried about environmental disruption. Previous climate change episodes may have pushed early people into extinction through habitat loss and food scarcity. There also may be a connection between climate change and natural disasters in our modern era. Wilder storms, intense droughts and all-consuming wildfires seem more frequent, but just how does climate change affect natural disasters and is this the whole story?
Randall Alliss, a Fellow and atmospheric scientist at Northrop Grumman, suggests that to get the whole picture, much more quantitative data must be gathered and analyzed before drawing conclusions.
“There’s a lot more to learn about climate science and weather prediction than can be simply explained by what we’re currently seeing,” he says. “Data collection needs to continue, and the technology and computing power needs to improve to start seeing the patterns.”
Climate Change 101
Anthropogenic climate change — manmade climate change due to human activity such as emissions from fossil fuel combustion and intensive farming — is warming up the world. Greenhouse gas abundance in the atmosphere is wrapping us in a cozy blanket, trapping warmth from the sun and raising the average surface temperature. It’s affecting conditions in the polar regions, warming them faster than the tropics. This means there is less of a gradient between the poles and the equator, with warmer oceans in between.
Temperatures and the Water Cycle Are Key Factors at Play
So far, the evidence is not yet extensive enough to draw firm conclusions. The potential comes down to rising temperatures and the effect on the water cycle. Changes in surface temperature are largely what’s fueling the potential link between climate change and natural disasters. It’s all about water uptake; changes in vapor and evaporation into the atmosphere are likely driving more frequent and more ferocious storms and rainfall while also paradoxically contributing to drought and wildfire intensity.
In short, even though the rise is less than two degrees Fahrenheit, water is evaporating, and atmospheric humidity is rising. According to NOAA’s Climate website, the average surface temperature of the planet in 2021 was 1.51 degrees Fahrenheit warmer than the 20th-century average of 57 degrees and 1.87 degrees warmer than the pre-industrial period of 1880-1900.
Changing Weather Patterns Bring Disasters Closer to Home
This change, though, is sufficient to alter weather patterns the world over, and it’s being felt by folks on the ground who are getting a personal experience of extreme weather. The U.S. Geological Survey, for example, describes an increase in the possibility of both droughts and intense storms as land temperatures increase and water vapor loads up in the atmosphere.
Hurricanes and Storms
Hurricane Ian hit Florida with faster winds and more rain. The combination was devastating. Though researchers cannot definitively pin worsening hurricanes on climate change, The Atlantic notes that planetary warming is having some effect.
The combination of heat and warmer oceans boost wind speeds, and with the planet’s poles warming faster than the tropics, this means that hurricanes form maximum intensity further from the equator and therefore closer to population density. The likelihood of these storms making landfall is therefore much greater, and we see more hurricane natural disasters reported as a result.
Floods and Storm Surges
Rising sea levels combine with these storms making landfall closer to populous areas, which causes flooding and storm surge natural disasters with greater impact on human life. Removal of coastal habitats like mangrove beds and saltwater marshes that offer protection increase the impact.
Inland, not only is climate change increasing precipitation, but The Conversation notes that it’s also leading to more and earlier rainfall on snow melt. In combination, these two factors lead to worse floods as rivers cannot cope with the higher volumes of water.
Human activities combine with adverse weather events to make flooding worse, as noted by The Narwhal. Heavier precipitation from an atmospheric river over southern British Columbia in November 2021 led to flooding in an extensive area of land reclaimed from a lake.
Droughts
Although global warming means more rainfall, the soil is drying out faster and less water is reaching rivers and lakes. In other areas, the traditional patterns of rainfall have changed, impacting reservoir accumulation. For example the Environmental Protection Agency notes that during spring, snow melts earlier and there is less accumulation of snowpack.
Shifting biomes move agriculture zones and the wildlife contained within regions. In areas that rely heavily on local agriculture and maintaining a water supply, these changes are devastating. EarthSky reports worst drought conditions in Europe in 500 years among other global regions hit hard. Reduced rainfall combined with prolonged extremes of heat result in greater evaporation; as a result, lakes dry up and fresh water supplies dwindle. In the Horn of Africa this affected thousands of people and their livestock, with many dying as a result.
Closer to home, NASA defines drought as a year with below-average rainfall. The agency notes that the American west has seen its driest years in the last two decades, impacting ranch country by decreasing valuable grassland grazing.
Wildfires
During droughts, vegetation dries out and becomes more flammable. There are also changes in water availability throughout the year, impacting growing seasons. This sets up dry conditions well ahead of the usual seasonal dry spells, and stresses vegetation, setting up banks of dead scrub and tinder. Climate change also leads to pest migration into previously safe areas, with pine beetle for example killing off more trees.
Wildfires in forests and grasslands can therefore be much more intense and uncontrollable since there is more fuel. People are also living closer to urban interface regions meaning that more lives and property are threatened when fires cannot be contained. This has certainly been noted over the past decade as seen in California, across Europe and within British Columbia, where each dry season seems accompanied by severe wildfires.
Does Climate Change Affect Natural Disasters?
While scientists have made observations such as a five-fold increase in weather-related disasters over the last 50 years and have made predictions that we’re more likely to see more natural disasters overlapping chronologically, data collection and analysis are still needed to conclusively link climate change and natural disasters.
And Alliss suggests that climate change might not be the whole answer.
“What causes the jet stream to be strong or weak is the difference in the temperature between the equator and the poles. And if that difference in temperature is decreasing because of climate change, we would expect the jet streams to become weaker,” Alliss suggests. “If the jet streams are becoming weaker, then in fact, we should see fewer severe winter storms, not more.”
There’s clearly still a lot of analysis and number-crunching needed to explore how climate change affects natural disasters. That’s where remote sensing technology and more powerful computing play important roles.
 
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Does Climate Change Affect Natural Disasters?

The fusion of aquaculture with hydroponics results in what could be a promising future for sustainable agriculture. Not only does aquaponics promise circular recycling, whereby wastewater feeds plants and then returns, detoxified, to grow more fish, but its double cropping could be key to food security for global coastal agriculture. So, what is aquaponics exactly?  What Is Aquaponics?  Aquaponics, in one form or another, has been practiced throughout history. Bloomberg notes that both Chinese and Aztec farmers knew the benefits of growing crops and fish together. In essence, it's the result of a symbiotic environment; fish or other aquaculture species produce nitrogenous waste into the water, which is then circulated as fertilizer for the plants. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (UN FAO) describes it as a three-living-organism arrangement. Fish, plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the plant roots support themselves, which turns the waste into fertilizer for the crops. The system also cleanses the water by filtering out particulates and removing fish waste before it builds up to toxic levels. The water is left fresh and clean enough to support fish growth, and so the cycle begins again.  Salmon and Salad for Sustainable Agriculture  In its simplest form, aquaponics is growing a tray of salad greens balanced over a self-cleaning aquarium tank of guppies on the kitchen counter. Modern commercial projects fill warehouses with high-tech, high-yield farms. Historical versions of this practice have included flooded rice paddies populated with carp or floating rafts of veggies in a fish pond. All, however, feature sustainability in reducing water consumption and maximizing nutrient recycling. Nothing goes to waste. There is even research into more sustainable foods to feed the fish, with mealworms as part of the menu according to USDA's SARE (Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education) project.  According to the University of Maryland's Sustainability blog, aquaponics uses only 10% of the water required by conventional agricultural practices for crop growing. Compared to traditional arable farming, the soilless conditions used for growing the plant crops also reduces pesticide and fertilizer use. The closed ecosystem minimizes or avoids disease and pest infestations. The UN FAO also notes that plants are grown much closer together. The increased stocking density, or capacity per square foot, is much greater than land-based farms, so facilities generally produce bigger yields in a much smaller area.  The system also optimizes output by cultivating plant crops especially suited to soilless cultivation. Microgreens and other salad vegetables grow quickly and are harvested earlier than traditional crops. They are also nutrient dense. Bloomberg profiles Edenworks, a business growing baby greens and microgreens over salmon, shrimp and striped bass within an urban indoor facility. Early in its startup, the company switched to the higher value crops with short growth cycles.  It's also possible to scale this venture upwards and outwards. The Coolist describes how vertical farming enterprises optimize available space to maximize crop yields. Meanwhile, SeaGrant, a federal-university partnership maintained by the National Oceans and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) describes how to grow 160,000 pounds of fish annually, and 30,000 heads of lettuce per day from 40,000 square feet of fish ponds and a 123,000-square-foot greenhouse.  Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security for Coastal Communities  For developing countries, where agricultural land is marginal and resources limited, aquaponics could be the answer to feeding communities and solving food security.  Science Direct describes a low-tech solution that uses readily available resources to optimize food production in coastal Bangladesh. Floating vegetable rafts above fish cages on existing homestead ponds brings food to villages in a way that is both sustainable and socially relevant. Not only can families move the rafts to follow available sunlight and improve crop growth, but the cages stop fish from escaping during rainy season floods.  Another potential for sustainable agriculture in coastal regions is to use saltwater. Project Feed 1010 describes how versatile these systems could be. Not only is saltwater widely available, and in areas where agriculture already struggles, but the salinity could support more fish species for consumption and preserve wild stocks. Although salad greens would struggle, plants that are salt-tolerant show potential for oil production or biofuels.  It is also possible that harnessing wave energy could power this agriculture. As an alternative energy source for desalination and electricity, this could bring freshwater systems as sustainable agriculture to arid coastal regions around the world. Aquaponics could not only feed communities but also produce a valuable crop to sell. 

Food Security in the Form of Aquaponics

It's officially hotter than ever. July 2023 was the hottest month on record. Global average temperatures for the month were likely the highest in 120,000 years, according to the United Nations.
"The era of global warming has ended ... and the era of global boiling has arrived," United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres warned in a statement.
How do we know for sure? International scientists compiled data from satellites, sensors and thermometers, along with millennia of climate data extracted from tree rings, coral reefs and deep-sea sediment cores. The consensus: It's getting hot in here. Way too hot.
Are Summers Getting Hotter?
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, global surface temperatures in July were 2.02 °F above the 20th-century average. The heat spike does not appear to be a fluke. Data collected by scientists worldwide shows a clear pattern of hotter summers — this was the 47th consecutive July with temperatures above the 20th century's average.
And the heat wasn't isolated to a few extreme locations — the record-warm temperatures covered 9.3% of the earth's surface. Not only was July the hottest month on record, but several other records were shattered, including the following:

    Hottest day: July 3 was the hottest day in recorded history, as the average global temperature reached 62.62 °F, according to ScienceNews. The following days were even more extreme, and that new record was tied or broken three more times. So now, the hottest day ever recorded is July 6, 2023, which saw average global temperatures of 63.01 °F.
    Highest ocean temperatures: For the fourth month in a row, global ocean surface temperatures set a record high, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
    Lowest sea ice: Sea ice coverage also hit a record low. In other words, less ice is covering the ocean than ever. The WMO reports that, globally, sea ice extent in July 2023 was about 470,000 square miles less than the previous record low from July 2019, according to the United States National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC). Take Antarctica, for example. Sea ice coverage ranked lowest on record for the third month in a row. The frozen continent is running about 1 million square miles — roughly the size of Argentina — below the 1991–2020 average.

"What we're seeing this year is uncharted territory in the satellite record," said Walt Meier, a sea ice scientist at NSIDC.
What's Causing the Extreme Heat?
"The monthly climate monitoring reports ... confirm the extraordinary pace of climate change as a result of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere," according to the WMO.
While some people remain skeptical, NASA summarizes the wealth of evidence for rapid climate change:

    The global temperature is rising.
    The ocean is getting warmer.
    The ice sheets are shrinking.
    Glaciers are retreating.
    Snow cover is decreasing (based on satellite observations).
    The sea level is rising.
    Arctic sea ice is declining.
    Extreme weather events are increasing in frequency.
    Ocean acidification is increasing.

Meanwhile, there is a perfect storm happening as climate change and El Niño coincide. El Niño is a climate pattern that describes the unusual warming of surface waters in the eastern Pacific Ocean, per National Geographic. El Niño appears every few years but is not as predictable as other events, like the tides or seasons.
"Depending on its strength, El Niño can cause a range of impacts, such as increasing the risk of heavy rainfall and droughts in certain locations around the world," Michelle L'Heureux, climate scientist at the Climate Prediction Center, told the National Weather Service. "Climate change can exacerbate or mitigate certain impacts related to El Niño. For example, El Niño could lead to new records for temperatures, particularly in areas that already experience above-average temperatures during El Niño."
The Consequences of Rising Temps
Scientists have been concerned about climate change since the 1800s, and the broader public has been increasingly aware of the planet's increasing temperatures in recent years. But while scenes of melting glaciers and suffering arctic animals are alarming, they can still seem distant. What happens when temperatures rise in more populated areas? Extreme heat affects human and animal health and the entire ecosystem.
"We just witnessed global air temperatures and global ocean surface temperatures set new all-time records in July. These records have dire consequences for both people and the planet exposed to ever more frequent and intense extreme events," Samantha Burgess, Deputy Director of the Copernicus Climate Change Service, told a media briefing at the United Nations in Geneva.
Hotter temperatures may affect extreme weather events. The natural disasters we already contend with — events like wildfires and hurricanes — can become more frequent and powerful. And as ice melts, we're seeing unusual effects, such as ancient viruses thawing out.
Now What?
The evidence is compelling. While locals are asking, "Are summers getting hotter?" scientists, technologists and world leaders are looking toward solutions. There isn't an easy fix, but there are steps we can take to get back on track toward a healthy planet.
Engineers are developing technology to mitigate the effects of greenhouse gases. Scientists continue to collect data to understand the consequences of a changing climate. And concerned citizens are spreading the word and advocating for environmentally friendly policies.
Interested in doing your part to protect the environment by developing innovative technology solutions? Learn more about our people and life at Northrop Grumman, or check out our career opportunities to see how you can be a part of defining possible.

The Era of Global Boiling: July Was the Hottest Month on Record

An oxygen minimum zone in the ocean is often called a "dead zone" because the dissolved oxygen levels are so low that most sea creatures can't survive. There has been an increase in the number of low-oxygen zones, which poses big threats to oceans. This is urgent, since — just like humans on land — marine animals need oxygen to survive.       A Growing Problem       A team of experts from a United Nations group, called the Global Ocean Oxygen Network, released a study in the January 2018 issue of Science about the growing number of low-oxygen sites in the ocean.       According to the scientists, oxygen concentrations in ocean water have been declining since at least the middle of the 20th century. They found that oxygen minimum zones in the open ocean have expanded by several million square kilometers and the problem is even worse in coastal water; some sites now have oxygen concentrations low enough that animals are fleeing.       What Causes Deoxygenation in the Ocean?       A phenomenon called nutrient loading is the main reason we're seeing an increase in low-oxygen zones, according to the Global Ocean Oxygen Network and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). This is a process where polluted water from urban centers and land-based agriculture trickles into streams and rivers that flow into the ocean. This water is full of fertilizers and other nutrients that create problems when they enter natural environments.       NOAA scientist Alan Lewitus explains that excessive nutrients in the water can stimulate explosive blooms of algae. When the blooms die, they sink to the bottom of the sea where bacteria decompose them and consume oxygen from the water, ultimately making the environment uninhabitable.       According to the United Nations Development Programme, dead zones are costing fisheries, the tourism industry and other coastal livelihood tens of billions of dollars annually and will only continue to increase unless something changes.       Marine life is already vulnerable because of plastic pollution, acidification and other threats to oceans. The oxygen problem is also connected to rising ocean temperatures caused by climate change. Lisa Levin, one of the authors of the Global Ocean Oxygen Network study, explained to Newsweek that warm water is inhospitable to oxygen.       As the ocean gets warmer, the water's overall oxygen concentration decreases. Rising temperatures also slow down ocean circulation and cause layers of water to stratify so the high-oxygen surface waters don't mix as well with deep water in an oxygen minimum zone, according to Scientific American.       Three Steps to Help the Ocean Breathe Again       "'This is a problem we can solve,'" says Denise Breitburg, the lead author of the Global Ocean Oxygen Network study. She continues in a statement, "'Halting climate change requires a global effort, but even local actions can help with nutrient-driven oxygen decline.'"       The scientists highlighted three main ways to fix the ocean's oxygen problem. First, we can stop adding to the problem by addressing two of the causes: nutrient pollution and climate change. The authors suggest that cutting fossil fuel emissions would help fight climate change, and new policies can help reduce the amount of fertilizers leaching into groundwater. The Chesapeake Bay is a success story where better sewage treatment, farming practices and laws like the Clean Air Act have helped improve the ocean's health.       Secondly, there are steps we can take to protect fish near low-oxygen zones, such as creating marine-protected areas or no-catch zones animals could use to flee low oxygen. Lastly, we can work on improving tracking this problem around the world. Scientists have been working on creating models to help predict where low-oxygen zones will be in the future, but they need more data about current oxygen levels in the ocean worldwide.       Scientists around the world are grappling with many complicated threats to oceans, but eliminating low-oxygen zones is extremely important to the health of creatures and humans alike.           

Gasping for Air in the Ocean's Oxygen Minimum Zone

If you've ever participated in a coastal clean-up effort, you've experienced ocean protection activities firsthand. And if your day of picking up trash included buying sunscreen, wading in the surf or treating yourself to a snack from a beachside vendor, you've also contributed to a concept known as the blue economy.       Healthy Ocean, Healthy Economy       The World Bank defined the blue economy as "the sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods and jobs, and ocean ecosystem health." It includes activities such as commercial and recreational fisheries; maritime transport; ocean-related tourism and recreation; coastal protection and restoration; waste management; and offshore renewable energy development.       "A healthy ocean is critical to a thriving global economy," said Philippe Cousteau, Jr., co-founder of EarthEcho International, an international environmental nonprofit. "The ocean provides countless economic services without which modern civilization could not exist."       Indeed, the World Wildlife Fund estimated that the ocean generates more than $2.5 trillion of economic benefits worldwide each year.       Have a Plan       It's not enough, however, for each part of the blue economy to conduct itself in sustainable ways, advised Amy Trice, director of Ocean Planning for Ocean Conservancy, a nonprofit environmental advocacy group.       "Imagine building a house where your carpenter, electrician, plumber, and framing crew did not work from a common plan," Trice said. "What sort of house would you end up with?"       The same logic applies to ocean protection. "We don't know nearly enough about the ocean and all of its potential uses," said Trice. "If we invest in research, and strive to coordinate and share that data among scientists, industry groups, federal agencies, and conservation groups, we'll come to faster, more informed decisions about how to use the ocean sustainably."       As an example, Trice cited the placement of offshore wind turbines on the U.S. East Coast by Deepwater Wind in 2015. The company attributed its engagement with the Rhode Island state ocean planning process — and the shipping and fisheries habitat data it provided — to shortening by years the time required to permit and decide where to place its turbines.       Blue Economy at Work       Three out of seven people on the planet rely on seafood as their main source of protein, claimed Conservation International. And marine fisheries contribute more than $270 billion annually to global GDP according to the World Bank. Unfortunately, overfishing — catching more fish than the population can replace through natural reproduction — threatens more than 33 percent of the world's fisheries.       To fight these trends, ocean conservation groups work to defend and strengthen the 1976 Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, which seeks to end overfishing, rebuild depleted fish populations and ensure sustainable fisheries management. The U.S. has also taken steps to set catch limits for each fishery and limit imports of fish that are not sustainably fished, a process explained by the Environmental Defense Fund.       Plastic Pollution        Ocean Conservancy stated that more than 8 million metric tons of plastic enter the ocean every year. Plastic debris poses threats not only to marine life through entanglement, but also to cargo ships, which transport more than $4 trillion worth of goods annually, according to the World Shipping Council.       Another growing concern, explained Trice, is microplastics, which are showing up even in remote parts of the world ocean. "A plastic bottle breaks up over time into small particles. Those particles are taken up by the marine food web, making their way from zooplankton and small fish up to larger fish which are ultimately consumed by humans," she said. "We really don't know the health implications of this trend."              To help combat this plastic epidemic, the Northrop Grumman Foundation teamed up with EarthEcho in October to sponsor "Expedition: Plastic Seas," a program designed to teach Australian teachers and students about the impact of plastic pollution on the southern coast of Australia.       Ocean Acidification       According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, increased levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere associated with climate change have also increased the amount of CO2 absorbed by the ocean, making it more acidic. This change in seawater chemistry also reduces levels of bicarbonate ions, the building block of skeletons and shells of marine organisms such as oysters, clams and corals.       "Ocean acidification has nearly forced many shellfish growers along the U.S. Pacific Coast to declare bankruptcy," said Trice. "It represents a significant threat to the blue economy and illustrates the value of gathering and sharing OA data with fishing communities that depend on shellfish for their livelihood."       Ocean acidification can also put coastal communities at risk by weakening or destroying coral reefs that support tourism and provide protection against storm surges exacerbated by sea level rise, Trice added.       Sharing the Future       In the end, explained Trice, ocean protection and the global economy are inextricably linked.       "With so much at stake, we need coordination among local, state, national and international stakeholders to identify and collectively solve problems," she said. "Through responsible ocean planning, we'll never have to choose between a healthy ocean and a healthy economy. We can actually have both."       

Ocean Protection Keeps the Blue Economy Afloat

In October 2018, the U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released a report stating that Earth has about a dozen years before average global temperatures exceed 1.5 Celsius, if significant reductions in carbon emissions aren't made. Some businesses are heeding the warnings and focusing on sustainable development in technology that improves energy efficiency or reduces emissions. From better ways to store renewable energy to improving methods of capturing carbon from the atmosphere, environmental tech is outpacing policy in the race to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2). Here are three already out of the gate. Pumped Hydroelectric Storage When people think of batteries, they may think of the lithium-ion ones in mobile phones or the lead-acid batteries in cars. Pumped hydroelectric storage is also a battery but on a much larger scale. It requires a hill, pumps and two reservoirs of water — one at the top of the hill and another at the bottom. It's often paired with renewable energy, such as hydroelectric, solar and wind, as a way to store energy on a huge scale for the utility grid. According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), the United States has 42 pumped hydro facilities. But there are opportunities for many more. A 2019 study from researchers with the Australian National University found 530,000 sites worldwide that have the potential to site pumped hydro energy storage. Altogether they'd cache upwards of 22 million gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electricity, hundreds of times more than the amount needed to power the entire world with 100 percent renewable energy. In Germany, the wind power manufacturer, Max Bé¶gl Wind, recently won an award from the Innovation for Cool Earth Forum for a pilot project near Stuttgart that will pair some of the world's tallest onshore wind turbines with a pumped hydro storage facility. For the project, four monstrous wind turbines, one of which will tower 810 feet, are being built on top of a hill. Each turbine will be planted in a small reservoir of water. These four pools connect to a pump facility and larger reservoir at the bottom of the hill. When the wind blows and energy costs are low, water is pumped up the hill to fill the small pools. When the wind stops blowing, the water is allowed to run back downhill, where it passes through turbines that generate electricity. The power plant is expected to generate about 10 GWh of electricity annually. Carbon Capture In the U.N.'s IPCC report, the panel members published an assessment of a new technology that could reduce CO2 already in the atmosphere. It's called carbon capture. It involves removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and either sequestering it or turning it into a useful product, such as concrete or carbon nanotubes. According to IPCC experts, carbon capture tech could "trap up to 85 to 90 percent of the CO2 emissions produced from the use of fossil fuels in industrial processes and electricity generation, effectively preventing that CO2 from entering the atmosphere." In 2019, the DOE announced it would provide up to $20 million in federal funds to accelerate the sustainable development of this environmental tech, which can be set up near natural gas or coal plants to nab emissions as they're spewed. To date, the world's largest carbon capture project at a coal plant is NRG's Petra Nova, according to Forbes. Based outside Houston, Texas, the plant captures more than 1.4 million tons of carbon dioxide gas each year, enough to remove 350,000 cars from the road, the company says. The CO2 is sucked from flue gas and piped 80 miles southwest to an oil field called West Ranch, and then a mile into the ground beneath it, reports the University of Texas. There, the CO2 is injected into spaces between rocks that used to hold oil. Although most of the oil has been extracted, remnants remain. The presence of the CO2 gas forces the remaining oil out, making older wells profitable again. Before using carbon capture technology, West Ranch produced about 300 barrels of oil daily. Now, NRG is recovering 4,000 barrels per day. Although carbon capture technology promises to remove CO2 from the atmosphere, environmental groups have criticized it for prolonging the world's dependence on fossil fuels and delaying sustainable development of renewable energy. A recent New York Times article said that Chevron, Occidental Petroleum and BHP have all invested tens of millions of dollars in the technology. But a 2019 study from the Center for International Environmental Law warned that carbon capture, utilization and storage technologies, could slow the transition to renewables and "undermine broader efforts to mitigate climate change." Cooling Data Centers In the United States alone, 3 million data centers bring the internet to the masses. Running day and night, these massive computer servers require a lot of electricity. The heat generated could melt critical electronics. To keep them cool, data centers use additional electricity to run air conditioners, server fans and other equipment. The carbon footprint is enormous. By 2025, data centers around the world are predicted to consume at least 1,200 terawatt-hours of electricity, or 3.2 percent of the planet's total electricity, and produce 1.9 gigatonnes of carbon emissions, reports the Guardian. Forced Physics, a company based in Scottsdale, Arizona, has invented a passive, low-power technology that they say could reduce a data center's electricity by 90 percent. The device also eliminates the need for the billions of gallons of water or other coolants that data centers rely on annually to cool these systems. The device is called a JouleForce conductor. It's a long, narrow and mostly hollow box made of aluminum. Computer circuit boards are attached to the outside. Inside, there are 3,000 very thin fins. Giant fans suck air through the middle of the conductor and over the fins. As they do, air molecules contact the fins, which, because of their thinness and special alignment, orient the molecules in the same way and accelerate them into a fast-moving "beam." The beam quickly moves heat from the attached electronics out the backside of the conductor. By using the technology, the company says, a data center could reduce their carbon footprint significantly and save $45 million a year by reducing costs on infrastructure, operations and energy. As the world grapples with the consequences of global climate change, including warmer, more acidic oceans, rising sea levels, more intense storms and droughts, some companies are working on mitigation. Pumped hydroelectric storage, carbon capture and data centers cooling technology are just three innovations that could have sweeping impacts.  If you want to contribute to a team exploring environmental tech solutions, take a look here.

3 Key Innovations Aiming to Reduce CO2 Emission

Sometimes the simplest solutions offer the best outcomes — along with a little help from human ingenuity. This is the case for night sky radiant cooling (NSRC), a process that combines the temperature in space with the continual efforts of environmental systems to reach thermal equilibrium. In other words, objects hotter than their surroundings get colder until the system balances out. On clear nights, however, thermal emissions from objects can outpace nearby environments, resulting in lower-than-ambient temperatures. Bolstered by technology, this process may offer a way to help offset the environmental impacts of heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems that use massive amounts of energy and generate substantive amounts of heat. Here's how. It's Getting Hot in Here As global temperatures continue to reach new extremes — data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ranked 2021 as the sixth-hottest year on record, while 2020 and 2019 both ranked in the top three — demand for cooling systems is on the rise. The need for heating solutions is also heating up; even as the rest of the world sweltered, Antarctica recorded its coldest temperatures since 1976. The problem? All this heating and cooling is actually making our problem worse. HVAC systems (along with lighting) now account for 28% of total greenhouse emissions on Earth, meaning that even as we try to control the temperature in our immediate vicinity, we're creating larger environmental issues that in turn drive a greater need for HVAC systems. It's a classically human problem: While technology affords us ways to circumvent natural processes and allow people to live in extremely warm or cold climates that would otherwise wipe us out, this same technology creates ripple effects in the world around us. According to NASA, these effects aren't limited to temperature changes. Many parts of the world have already seen average temperature increases of 1.5 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels. If these changes reach 2 C, more than 60 million people across urban areas worldwide could be subject to severe drought, while other regions could see substantially increased flooding. A 1.5 C change also leads to a 50% reduction in geographic range for 6% of insects, 8% of plants and 4% of vertebrates surveyed. Even more worrisome? Current predictions put us on track for a 5 C increase by 2100. NSRC may offer a partial solution. Keeping It Cool The underlying concept of night sky cooling is simple: Use the temperature in space to reduce the temperature of objects on Earth. All you need is ground, sky and a clear night. Here's how it works: All objects slowly radiate heat. On a clear night, this radiation can travel up into the vast expanse of space and allow objects to significantly cool down, even dipping below the ambient air temperature. This sky-concept cooling has been used for centuries in places where even the night provides little solace against accumulated heat. People in North Africa, India and Iran leveraged earthen pits or plant-insulated ceramic trays to hold water overnight. Heat radiated upward to cool the water, while natural insulation kept the water from warming up again when it fell below the ambient outside temperature. The result? Ice, despite an air temperature well above freezing. While other heating and cooling solutions rely on energy-intensive technology to either remove or add heat for human comfort, NSRC uses existing system components to improve efficiency and reduce total energy expenditures. (Night) Sky's the Limit How cold is outer space? It depends on where you are. At the edge of Earth's atmosphere, the average temperature is a not-so-chilly 10 degrees Celsius. Move past the upper atmosphere and temperatures can fall to -100 C; keep going and you'll see the mercury drop to -270 C. So how cold is outer space? Cold enough. This falling temperature gradient, however, sets the stage for night sky cooling. On a clear night, there's nothing to stop heat energy from radiating all the way up into space instead of hanging around here on Earth. But how do we make the best use of NSRC? While turning water into ice overnight offers a historical glimpse of this cool concept in action, how can it be adapted in predominately urban settings to help offset energy costs? One approach from Aaswath Raman — a materials scientist at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) — looks to expand the impact of night sky cooling by bringing it into the light of day. Along with his colleagues, Raman has created an incredibly thin reflective film that allows objects such as solar panels to radiate substantial amounts of heat while absorbing virtually none. The results speak for themselves: Equipped with this film, the temperature of objects fell by 10 C or more, even in the middle of hot, sunny days. Applied to other HVAC systems such as air conditioners and furnaces, this film could help minimize heat generation while simultaneously improving performance. Work is also underway to generate rather than radiate energy from night sky cooling. It all started as a proof-of-concept effort from researchers at the UCLA Samueli School of Engineering. The team purchased $30 worth of materials at hardware and electronic supply stores to create an aluminum disk and painted it black on one side. The researchers placed the disk on a rooftop during winter with the black side facing the sky, and it began to radiate heat, which was then captured by a thermoelectric generator and converted into heat. Worth noting? It wasn't much energy — 25 milliwatts per square meter, or enough to power an LED bulb. With purpose-built technology, however, the team believes they could increase the energy efficiency to 0.5 watts per square meter, enough to power a room full of lights. Expand this to a whole rooftop full of radiating discs, combine it with solar power generated during the day and you've got a substantial renewable resource scenario. Like Night and Day Night sky cooling looks to flip the script on energy consumption and heat production. By using natural temperature differentials to radiate heat into space — and leverage that heat to generate renewable energy — there's an opportunity to both improve HVAC efficiency and get something usable in return. Being on the forefront of change, especially regarding space, physics, and engineering has been part of the Northrop Grumman culture for generations. Click here to search jobs in these areas of scientific innovation.

Cold as Ice: Night Sky Cooling Taps the Temperature in Space

For some, the future comes too fast. Technologies of tomorrow seem to quickly usurp yesterday's trends. But luckily advances in restoration architecture have come together to save parts of history from total obliteration. Lasers, virtual reality and 3D printing are recent additions to the conservation technology toolbox, giving historians new ways to preserve cultural landmarks that may have been lost — or are at risk of being lost — to time, neglect, wars or disaster. Lasers 3D-Mapped Notre Dame At 6:20 p.m. local time on Monday, April 15, 2019, an alarm rang out at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France. A fire had started in the building's iconic spire and spread through the roof, nicknamed "The Forest" for its framework of beams hewn from 12th century oaks. Nine hours later, firefighters extinguished the flames, reports CNN, and the world looked with shock upon the ruins of a historical landmark. But all was not lost. Ten years prior to the fire, the late Andrew Tallon, an architectural historian at Vassar College, and computer scientist Paul Blaer of Columbia University laser-scanned every inch of Notre Dame, inside and out, according to The Atlantic. It took them five days to place markers around the structure and then point a Leica scanner, mounted on a tripod, at 50 different locations. They collected more than 1 billion data points, according to Leica, and computer software converted the scanned data into three-dimensional forms. As part of this architectural conservation project, Tallon also used a digital camera to collect high-resolution panoramic photos of the interior and exterior, and overlaid them onto the 3D scans to map the details. There was only one problem, reports The Atlantic. No one is quite sure where the files are. Roughly a terabyte in size, Blaer estimates, the files are small enough to fit on a single hard drive and, since they were collected 10 years ago, are unlikely to have been uploaded to the cloud. A colleague of Tallon's, John Ochsendorf, of MIT, told The Atlantic he thought they might be with Tallon's widow. If found, these details would offer invaluable resources to those rebuilding the Gothic cathedral. Remote Sensing Uncovers a Lost Mayan City High-resolution aerial images are creating breakthroughs in archaeology and technology. Using an aerial mapping technology, called LiDAR, scientists are able to see archaeological sites hidden beneath soil, sand, vegetation or even man-made structures. Last year, Marcello Canuto of Tulane University and his team published an unprecedented study in the journal Science, detailing the dozens of ancient cities in northern Guatemala that they found using this laser-based technology. It's similar to radar in that it emits a signal that is analyzed with a sensor when it reflects off a distant object and returns. The difference is that radar uses radio waves and Lidar uses light waves. Onboard sensors are able to measure the precise elevation and geospatial location of features on Earth's surface to create a 3D topological map. According to a press statement from Tulane University, Canuto and his team conducted aerial surveys of 810 square miles and found 61,480 ancient structures, 362 square kilometers of terraces, 952 square kilometers of farmland and 106 square kilometers of causeways. Based on the ruins, the scientists estimate that 7 to 11 million people lived in the area between the years 650 and 800. Virtual Reality and 3D Printing Preserve a Trove of Heritage Sites Arguably one of the most ambitious projects to use conservation technology to save landmarks is the Open Heritage Project, started by San Francisco-based Ben Kacyra, an engineer and founder of a company that developed a portable scanning technology. The idea for the project came to Kacyra in 2001 as he watched television footage of the Taliban, a Sunni Islamic fundamentalist group, destroying the Buddhas of Bamiyan — monuments in Afghanistan that date back to the 4th and 5th centuries, reports Smithsonian. Well-versed in scanning technology, Kacyra decided he could use it to create 3D experiences of heritage sites, even ones that had already been destroyed. He founded the nonprofit CyArk in 2003 to use 3D scanning technology, digital imagery, drones and virtual reality to compile open-source data and share visual representations of culturally significant sites. CyArk teamed up with Google to create an online library, which contains some 27 sites from 18 countries. Visitors to the Open Heritage Project can view the Maya ruins of Chiché©n Itzé¡ in Mexico, the ancient city of Bagan in Myanmar, the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., and more using a laptop or virtual reality goggles. This past January, CyArk and Google partnered with the 3D printing company Stratasys to make some of the world's heritage sites available as 3D-printed models. In a press statement, Chance Coughenour, a digital archaeologist and program manager with the Google Arts and Culture division, said, "These detailed scans can also be used to identify areas of damage and assist restoration efforts." For all that has been saved, plenty has been lost. In 1900, a hurricane nearly wiped away the city of Gavelston, Texas, according to History. In 2018, a fire ravaged Brazil's 200-year-old Rio de Janeiro National Treasure Museum. But advances in restoration architecture and conservation technology are making it possible to digitally record and preserve the world's cultural heritages for future generations.

How Architectural Conservation Technology Is Saving Landmarks

There were 144 orbital rocket launch attempts in 2021, which is a record — and the numbers are just going to keep going up from here. Everyone seems to want to go to space. Demand is higher than ever. That's why the industry is taking note of the environmental impacts of rocket fuel — and looking for more sustainable fuels and alternatives.Biofuels are of huge interest to the rocketry industry because they're more sustainable and less harmful to the environment than current options. One promising option from Lawrence Berkeley National Lab promises more energy density than any current fuel option available — without the toxic byproducts of petroleum. How would this biofuel work, and what are the downsides and challenges? Here's what we know.
Bacteria as Sustainable Biofuel
This new fuel, called POP-FAME (polycyclopropanated fatty acid methyl ester), is based on the antifungal bacteria Streptomyces. Project leader Jay Keasling specifically focused in on this molecule because of its shape, but Streptomyces has proven difficult to grow in a lab. However, because it had been genetically mapped, the team attempted to recreate the bacteria's shape without copying the more troublesome parts of the structure — which would make it easy to replicate. They succeeded, and POP-FAME is the result.The key to this new potential biofuel is in its shape: It has three carbon rings in the shape of a triangle. Typical fuels also have carbon chains — but they aren't subject to the same stress that a sharper 60-degree angle creates. Energy is created when these bonds are broken, and these bonds under duress (at a sharper angle) produce a lot more energy when broken than typical fuels do. What's more, because of its shape, it can be packed even tighter than regular petroleum, which further increases its energy potential.The potential energy output of POP-FAME is enormous. According to the Science News release, it will be "more than 50 megajoules per liter after chemical processing." In comparison, a popular kerosene-based rocket fuel has around 35. Basically, this means that it has the potential to be more energy efficient at a lower consumption rate — and because it's biofuel, it will produce fewer toxic byproducts.
How Could Biofuels Change the Aerospace Industry?
The force of Earth's gravity is significant; as a result, it takes a lot of fuel to propel a rocket out of Earth's atmosphere. When there were just a few rocket launches a year, no one paid much attention to environmental costs. But now that rocket launches are happening more regularly, experts are taking notice.While it's too early to say that this biofuel would have no effect on climate change or be completely neutral (even simple, seemingly harmless byproducts such as water can have an effect on climate change, after all), it will likely produce lower toxicity than current options.Additionally, it's important to take note of energy efficiency and costs. Inexpensive, sustainable fuels would bring the costs of reaching orbit down, which would encourage more launches. That, in turn, might spur a new era of space exploration and travel. What's more, sustainable biofuel that's easy to produce could make Mars trips feasible — once astronauts arrive, they could simply grow the fuel needed to get them back home.
What Are the Next Steps?
It's important to note that POP-FAME is still in the very early stages. The team hasn't even done field tests yet, so all of this is still theoretical. Still, POP-FAME has performed excellently in simulations. These tests have shown that the molecule is safe and stable at room temperature. In contrast, liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, two popular rocket fuels, must be kept at -297 degrees Fahrenheit and -423 degrees Fahrenheit, respectively.Now the challenge is to produce enough of the biofuel for testing, which could take a while. Additionally, scientists want to test out different applications of biofuels for jet fuel and other possible uses. In other words, it will be a long time before this biofuel is ready for any practical uses — but it's incredibly promising for right now.Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Biofuels Could Be a More Environmentally Friendly Rocket Fuel

The auto industry is developing alternatives (i.e. hybrid and electric) to the gasoline-powered engine. But pollution from aircraft is often overlooked. Solar flight could be one solution to this problem.Aircraft PollutionWhile cars and coal-fired power plants are worse for the environment, according to Yale Climate Connections, flying does significant harm. A 2010 study from the University of Cambridge and MIT estimated that the emissions from cruising aircraft alone were responsible for around 8,000 premature deaths each year. That estimate doesn't include deaths from the pollution caused when aircraft take off and land. According to the Center for Biological Diversity, airplanes may generate 43 gigatons of pollution by 2050 — nearly 5 percent of earth's remaining carbon budget.Tweaking MaterialsResearchers and industry are looking for ways to reduce planes' use of fuel, according to National Geographic, including more energy-efficient engines, more aerodynamic shapes and even a coating that would prevent bugs from sticking to the fuselage, thereby reducing drag. Simply being more operationally efficient could save a lot of fuel and reduce emissions, according to PBS.Instead of incremental measures, some innovators want to change the very nature of aircraft.One milestone in this search began back in 1982, when Scaled Composites founder Burt Rutan started to develop an aircraft that could fly around the world without stopping or refueling. To do this, he needed to design the lightest, most efficient plane possible. The plane, christened Voyager, used an innovative construction method, according to the Experimental Aircraft Association: a sandwich of paper honeycomb and graphite fiber that was molded and oven-cured. The resulting craft weighed just 939 pounds, sans fuel.The Voyager, piloted by Burt's brother Dick Rutan and Jeanna Yeager, successfully completed its trans-global flight on December 23, 1986, after flying nonstop for nine days. Today, Scaled Composites is part of Northrop Grumman and continues to push the envelope of the possible through rapid prototyping using advanced materials.Solar FlightWhile measures to reduce fuel and emissions are necessary, some have a bigger dream: flying with clean, renewable energy from the sun.In 2004, Bertrand Picard, a Swiss psychiatrist who had previously company-piloted the first trans-global flight in a balloon, set out to prove the viability of solar energy by flying around the world in an aircraft powered only by the sun.Working with André© Borschberg, a Swiss entrepreneur and pilot, began work on a solar plane. In July 2005, their first plane, the Solar Impulse, completed a flight from Hawaii to Japan in five days. It was the longest solo solar flight in history.In 2016, Bertrand Piccard and Borschberg set out again. This time, they overcame the challenges and Picard completed the 40,000 kilometer flight, this time solo.On completing the flight, Picard told the Guardian, "I hope people will understand that it is not just a first in the history of aviation, but also a first in the history of energy."What's Next?Picard remains committed to furthering the development of solar-powered and clean-energy travel. In November 2016, his organization launched the World Alliance for Clean Technologies during the UN Climate Conference.Solar Flight is another company working on sun-powered aircraft. It's developing planes for high-altitude, long-distance flights and a six-seat transport craft. It successfully completed a multi-stop, trans-American journey in 1989 and has successfully flown a two-seater.Meanwhile, the sky isn't quite the limit. In December 2016, Raphaé«l Domjan, a self-described eco-adventurer, unveiled SolarStratos, which he hopes will be the first manned, solar-powered airplane to penetrate the stratosphere.All this innovation relies on industry to come up with lighter, stronger materials, more advanced sun-powered engines and more efficient solar cells. The goal of cleaner skies through solar flight could be within our reach.

Could Solar Flight Clean the Skies?

"Marine snow" is the name given to a widespread natural phenomenon of the underwater world. Discovered and first reported by divers, and recorded by submarine cameras, it resembles a light snowfall — an endless stream of mostly white specks, swirling in the underwater currents like snowflakes in a breeze as they gradually sink into the ocean depths.Only in recent years have scientists discovered that this "snow" includes a growing proportion of plastic bits and fragments, a little-understood aspect of plastic in the ocean.Pieces of plastic between half a millimeter and five millimeters in size, though just barely visible to the eye, are known in the marine research world as microplastic, a term sometimes abbreviated to "MP." According to Science Daily, one study estimates that there are 24.4 trillion individual pieces of microplastic in the world's oceans, weighing up to half a million tons. The study also cautioned that the total is almost certainly much greater.A Nutritious SnowfallWatching flurries of white like snowfall may be charming for divers, but the natural components of marine snow are not a bit appealing to us humans. According to the Smithsonian Institution, it is largely made up of "waste, such as dead and decomposing animals, poop, silt and other organic items."Unappealing to us, perhaps, but marine snow is an important source of nutrition for marine life that lives in the intermediate and lower depths of the ocean, below the surface waters, as well as the inhabitants of the sea floor. As reported by NOAA's Ocean Service, studies of marine snow have found it rich in carbon and nitrogen, fundamental nutrients for all life, including the scavengers of the ocean depths.This material drifts slowly downward and can take weeks to eventually reach the ocean floor. Much of the seabed under the ocean depths is covered by the ooze deposited by endless centuries of marine snowfall, amounting to as much as six meters over a million years.Trillions of Bits and Pieces of JunkWhen we think of the harmful effects of plastic in the ocean, reports Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, we typically picture larger chunks of plastic, such as the ringed plastic containers for drinking cans. These notoriously can entangle marine mammals, seabirds and other large ocean dwellers, often with fatal consequences.But surveys of the ocean surface have revealed that only a small fraction of the plastic that gets washed into the sea remains as large floating pieces. The rest is broken down into smaller pieces by sun exposure and other forces acting on it, eventually breaking up into trillions of individual microplastic fragments.Other sources of plastic are already micro-scaled by the time the material reaches the sea. These small pieces, per Woods Hole, include "microbeads" incorporated into toothpaste and body-cleansing products, as well as "nurdles" produced by snap-off plastic tabs.According to Pew Trusts, more than three quarters of microplastic pollution in the ocean may be from a source we don't usually think of as plastic — namely, wear and tear from tires: bits of synthetic rubber (a type of plastic) that get washed down highway storm drains, eventually finding their way to the sea.Plastic Snow Keeps On FallingPlastic in the ocean comes from a wide variety of sources, and it also undergoes a complex cycle of interaction with marine life once it breaks down to the scale of microplastics fragments. For example, the bits of plastic may be ingested by fish or other sea life and subsequently excreted as fecal pellets, or they may provide anchoring points for colonies of marine microorganisms.In turn, these processes can set the stage for a complex cycle. The scientific journal Nature reports on "the intriguing possibility that a widespread entrainment/release cycle dominates the transport of biologically active plastic particles."As a piece of microplastic becomes intermixed with living cells such as bacteria or plankton, a process called biofouling takes place. The result is a "plastic-organic aggregate" that has negative buoyancy — that is, it gradually sinks toward the bottom. As the microplastic sinks into deeper water, the pressure around it increases and can force chemical changes that "remineralize" the plastic, clearing away the biofouling.The remineralized plastic, with its initial positive buoyancy restored, then drifts back upward in the ocean. Once it reaches the sunlit and life-rich upper waters (the euphotic zone) biofouling can again take place, and the whole cycle may repeat itself.Searching for Clues on the Ocean FloorAll of these subtle processes, taking place largely in the dark depths of the oceans, are exceptionally difficult to observe. What comes through in research reports on marine snow and plastic in the ocean is how much we are still in the initial reconnaissance stage of our exploration.The same Science Daily study that estimated there are 24.4 trillion pieces of microplastics in the world's oceans also concluded that their combined weight was likely between 82,000 and 578,000 tons ("but probably much greater"). Another study, reported at FrontiersIn.org, found that what is rather oddly described as the "seafloor export potential" (that is, absorbing material into the seafloor ooze) could account for between 7,300 and 420,000 metric tons per year of plastic junk, or about 0.06—8.8 percent of the estimated total annual pollution of plastic in the ocean.Those wide estimated ranges are a blinking yellow light reminding us that researchers are still finding their way around down there, and there is a lot we are only starting to learn.The same caution applies to uncertainty about the possible effects of microplastics in the oceans, particularly on the health of ocean ecosystems, including fisheries, and on our own health. National Geographic notes that microplastics have been detected across the whole range of sea life, from plankton to whales. They have been found in seafood and also in drinking water, where standard drinking water treatment does not fully eliminate microplastics.As Pew Trusts notes, microplastics don't just have the potential to include harmful plastic components; they can also absorb and concentrate other substances from the environment, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which have been linked to humans. Pew also reports that microplastics produced by tire wear have been responsible for die-offs of salmon in the Pacific Northwest fishery, already regarded as fragile.Woods Hole further observes that filter-feeding sea creatures, such as oysters and scallops, are exposed to microplastics, and as popular seafood items, they pass them along to humans. The full marine contribution to the human food chain is known only in the broadest outline — one more mystery of the deep that we are only beginning to tease out. Clearly a great deal more research is needed for us to fully understand the role of microplastics in the overall impact of plastic in the ocean.Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery in science, technology and engineering.

Plastic in the Ocean Pollutes "Marine Snow"

Life as we know it would not exist without carbon, which is an essential component of complex molecules, including DNA, proteins and carbohydrates. Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe, according to Earth Observatory at NASA. Most of Earth's carbon is stored in rocks. The rest is present in the atmosphere, the ocean, living things, the soil and fossil fuels. The carbon cycle — which includes fast and slow components — describes how carbon naturally moves through these different repositories.
 
 
 
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution about 150 years ago, humans have been releasing carbon into the atmosphere from fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas. The energy from these sources enabled the widespread availability of manufactured goods, automobiles, electronics and other innovations that make modern life possible. However, the excess carbon is now altering the climate and threatening the ecosystems that keep life in balance. Thus, reducing carbon emissions has become an urgent international goal.
 
 
 
The Fast Carbon Cycle
 
 
 
The fast carbon cycle is largely the movement of carbon through life forms on Earth. Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere is taken up by plants undergoing photosynthesis, which uses energy from the sun to combine CO2 with water (H2O) to produce sugar (usually C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2).
 
 
 
The carbons captured through this process can be incorporated into a seemingly endless variety of complex organic molecules as the plants grow and support ecosystems that include animals, bacteria and fungi. In a reverse of the original reaction, sugar molecules can be broken down to produce energy and CO2 during digestion, decay or fire. This requires the input of oxygen and water and allows CO2 to be released back into the environment.
 
 
 
Humans are most familiar with CO2 in the atmosphere, but CO2 is also present in the ocean. Microscopic marine algae — called phytoplankton — take up this CO2 and use energy from the sun to undergo photosynthesis. These algae form the base of the marine food chain and provide 50% of the oxygen in the atmosphere, according to National Geographic.
 
 
 
The Slow Carbon Cycle
 
 
 
The fastest part of the slow carbon cycle is the ocean. At the surface of the ocean, carbon dioxide is exchanged with the atmosphere. As humans have released more CO2 into the atmosphere, the ocean has taken up more CO2.
 
 
 
Once in the ocean, carbon dioxide reacts with water molecules to release hydrogen, making the ocean more acidic. The hydrogen reacts with carbonate to produce bicarbonate ions. Carbonate is also used by shell-building organisms, including phytoplankton, corals, oysters and starfish, to build their calcium carbonate shells. More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has led to less carbonate in the oceans and more fragile shells.
 
 
 
As marine organisms die, they sink to the seafloor. Over time, layers of shells and sediment become cemented together to form limestone. The carbon trapped in limestone can be stored for millions of years, as evidenced by the fossil shells commonly found in limestone. About 80% of carbon-containing rock is made this way. The remaining 20% comes from land-dwelling organisms that became embedded in mud to form shale, which is another type of sedimentary rock. If dead plants build up faster than they can decay, they may become fossil fuels.
 
 
 
Over geological time, these sedimentary rocks may be exposed to the atmosphere or volcanic activity, and their carbon may be returned to the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere combines with water to form carbonic acid, which is a weak acid that falls as rain and dissolves exposed rocks through a process called chemical weathering. This releases ions — such as calcium needed to form calcium carbonate shells — and eventually leads to more carbon being deposited on the ocean floor. When volcanic activity causes sedimentary rocks to melt, they form fresh silicate minerals and release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
 
 
 
Reducing Greenhouse Gases
 
 
 
At present, volcanoes emit between 130 and 380 million metric tons of carbon dioxide per year. By burning fossil fuels, humans now emit about 36 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide per year, according to Statista. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is now greater than any other time in the last 3.6 million years.
 
 
 
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. When present in the atmosphere, it absorbs heat emitted by Earth and reflects some of it back to Earth. Without greenhouse gases like water vapor, CO2 and methane, Earth would be completely frozen. However, too much carbon dioxide causes excess warming. Since 1880, CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere have risen from 280 parts per million to 387 parts per million, and average global temperatures have increased by 0.8 degrees Celsius (1.4 degrees Fahrenheit).
 
 
 
Reducing carbon emissions by using energy more efficiently and transitioning to clean, renewable energy whenever possible is essential to reversing this problem. It's also important to protect and restore natural carbon reservoirs, such as forests, permafrost and salt marshes. However, some industrial processes (e.g., iron smelting and making cement from limestone) will release carbon regardless of the energy source.
 
 
 
Therefore, we need ways to capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from the point of emission and store it safely for thousands or millions of years.
 
 
 
How Carbon Capture and Storage Technology Can Help
 
 
 
According to Chemical and Engineering News, existing carbon capture technologies work but are prohibitively expensive in all but a few settings. Carbon capture is essentially a gas-separation problem, which becomes more energy intensive as CO2 becomes more dilute. The "low-hanging fruit" includes iron and steel plants, which emit streams with 15% to 80% CO2. Coal and natural gas power plants are more challenging, as they produce the largest share of gas emissions and emit gas streams with less than 15% CO2. Most challenging of all is ambient air, which has a CO2 concentration of around 0.041%.
 
 
 
Existing technologies include the use of filters, membranes or solvents that absorb CO2 while allowing other molecules to pass through. These processes often require heat to push gas through the filter to remove purified CO2 so it can be stored or to refresh the system so it can be reused. One promising option is to pair these energy requirements with clean energy sources or heat that would otherwise go to waste.
 
 
 
According to the environmental policy think tank Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, existing carbon capture technologies can capture more than 90% of CO2 emissions from power plants and industrial facilities. Geological formations being used or considered for CO2 storage include old oil and gas reservoirs, saline aquifers, basalt formations and shale basins.
 
 
 
Almost all the CO2 captured to date has been used in "enhanced oil recovery," where the CO2 is injected into declining oil fields to increase oil production. This would seem to negate the benefits of carbon capture and work against the goal of transitioning to renewable energy. However, oil and gas companies have been early adopters of carbon capture technology and have enormous budgets — both of which are essential for rapidly improving the technology to achieve net-zero carbon emissions.
 
 
 
Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.
 
 
 

The Carbon Cycle: How Can We Reduce Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere?

Nanotechnology isn't a new concept. As noted by News Medical, human notions of nanoscale technologies have existed for centuries, but over the last few decades rapid technological advancements have empowered nanotech solutions in manufacturing and development. The caveat? Human-centric solutions have been more difficult to deliver. Now, alternative energy sources and antiviral compounds are in development as the evolution of nanotechnology picks up speed. What's next for nanoscale solutions? Viral Victories Viruses are stubborn. While pharmaceuticals exist to block specific viral protein bindings, they're limited. The emergence of drug-resistant viral strains is of critical concern, since these new strains are often more potent and resilient. Because of that, they require larger doses of medication, potentially causing adverse side effects. Some work on anti-viral nanocompounds has already been done, using rigid gold and silver nanoparticles to mimic heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans used as binding points for many viral variations. According to Phys.org, new research from the Potsdamn Institute of Biochemistry and Biology and the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, along with work from the Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry and the Center for Infection Medicine (both of Freie Universitat), has led to the development of flexible antiviral nanotech compounds which "can effectively and permanently bind and shield viruses, thus preventing infections." Initial data shows inhibitory effects of up to 90 percent. Color Conditions Humans have a fascination with color. From fashion to safety to emotional well-being, color impacts the human condition. Sadly, though, traditional colors fade. Here's why: Pigments and dyes block certain wavelengths of light, in turn producing specific colors. But over time — and under exposure to sunlight — these pigments decay and fade. Naturally occurring colors in beetles and butterflies, however, are produced by slit-covered, nanoscale pillars. Varying slit widths produce destructive light interference which in turn creates long-lasting, fade-resistant color, according to Phys.org. As noted by Nanowerk, a team from the University of Hamburg, the ITMO-University in St. Petersberg and the Helmholtz-Center Geesthacht have developed a "photonic glass" that uses 200-nanometer hollow spheres, which "produce a blue color much closer to the perimeter of the chromaticity diagram," solving previous problems with weakly saturated colors produced by homogenously filled sphere solutions. Transistor Transformations Current transistor technology requires substantial power for operation. Another evolution of nanotechnology focuses on the development of all-carbon nanotube transistor radios capable of high-speed transmissions that require just one-thousandth the power of existing solutions. According to Nanotechnology Now, the technology, developed as a joint venture between between Northrop Grumman and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, uses "thousands of perfectly aligned, single-walled carbon nanotubes as a type of semiconductor thin film." Both proof-of-concept and power considerations are important: This is the first radio prototype that leverages carbon nanotubes for all active and vital components, and it could potentially increase battery life seven-fold compared to current transistor technology. Energy Evolution Nano-driven alternative energy sources are also in development. <a target="_blank" class="SWhtmlLink" href="https://www.power-technology.com/news/researchers-create-hydrogen-energy-source-using-nanotechnology/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Power Technology reported that researchers from Manchester Metropolitan University in the United Kingdom are working nanoscale, screen-printed, graphene-like electrodes that are embedded in carbon-based ink. Used in electrolysers, these electrodes separate water into its component parts — hydrogen and oxygen — and store the hydrogen for later use. The big advantage here? Not only are these electrodes environmentally-friendly, they don't require consumer demand to make economic sense. Hydrogen can be captured and stored as a gas with no deterioration or loss, then used on demand in a fuel cell. Potential use cases include remote communities that currently import expensive fossil fuels, and power-intensive military applications. Nano Tech, Big Impact The evolution of nanotechnology is now delivering human-centric value. From flexible antiviral compounds to non-fading colors, low-power transistors and renewable energy sources, thinking small delivers big impact.

Energy Sources and Viral Defenses: The Evolution of Nanotechnology

Key Takeaways Wildlife conservation benefits from drones as eyes in the sky for population and habitat monitoring. Boosting analytical power with AI can help speed up results. AI coupled with drone flights can help spot poachers and protect vulnerable populations.Wildlife conservation is getting help not only from wildlife drones but also from the limitless computing power of artificial intelligence (AI). With diversity under threat, researchers are flying unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) as wildlife drones to gather information on endangered populations and habitats. To cope with the massive amounts of data generated, AI is helping to speed up results. From remote areas of the planet to endangered populations, drones and AI are working together to extend the reach for conservation and research.How Are Drones Used in Wildlife Monitoring?Traditionally, conservation efforts took place on foot or by aerial surveillance, with population counts and habitat assessments performed manually by an observer. The main problems with this approach are access, impact and scale. Access: Wildlife conservation often means working in remote regions of the planet, which aren't always easily accessible. Even traditional aerial survey is difficult if dense scrub blocks visual identification. The Wildlife Society describes how researchers used drones to penetrate dense vegetation in Brazil's Pantanal wetlands, the world's largest tropical floodplain. Images collected over two months counted 66 marsh deer in this delicate ecosystem. Impact: Human presence impacts wildlife, disrupting normal behavior with damaging results on feeding, breeding and hunting. The World Wildlife Fund is using remote drone surveillance to monitor cetaceans in Canada's arctic waters. Without disrupting the bowhead and narwhal whales, researchers witnessed unique behaviors for feeding and hunting that had never previously been seen. Scale: Covering large areas on foot or even with a vehicle is limited, so monitoring an entire population takes a lot of time and may not be possible. The Nature Conservancy in Colorado not only uses drones to track bison movement over inaccessible territory but also picks out cottonwood tree health from the infrared imaging sensors in UAVs.Replacing direct human observation with drones can help increase wildlife conservation efforts. Although there are issues with regulation for flights beyond the visual range of the operator, drones can help with access to remote areas, and their sensors can cut through dense vegetation. There are also ethical concerns with flying at the correct height to avoid disturbing wildlife. However, once this is addressed and permits are obtained, there will be less impact on the species under observation, so they are free to continue uninterrupted. This is extremely valuable for scientists interested in the behavior of species in the wild.Drones and AI Meet ConservationWhen the power of AI can be combined with drones, wildlife conservation can truly take flight. Drone flights can cover a greater area than traditional methods and, when coupled with AI, can return more results faster. Plus, wildlife drones with AI are not only highly scalable but also teachable. Sensors aboard drones can capture images and features that the human eye may miss, and then, AI can make light work of processing all the incoming data.AI is already supporting conservation projects around the world. Faster processing speeds help sift through images from camera traps to capture meaningful data from thousands of empty images. The National Wildlife Federation describes how researchers are training AI tools for pattern recognition to identify humpback whales by their songs, whale sharks by their markings and trout by their spots.Researchers in Botswana use drones for rhino conservation, coupling them with machine learning AI that makes the process much more effective. According to The Wildlife Society, drones are helping monitor rhino populations as they rebound from near extinction. In the 1980s, rhino herds were greatly reduced due to poaching activity, and their recent reintroduction is being closely monitored for the herds' protection. Frequent foot patrols monitor the rhino habitat, but there's often too much to cover and not enough personnel to be completely effective. Enter AI as a solution.Using wildlife drones, researchers use AI to train detection programs on the images obtained from aerial reconnaissance. The scientists use machine learning to speed up alerts and support foot patrols. The research team's AI can now discriminate between rhino herd movement and human activity. It can even tell the difference between the wardens and poachers simply by analyzing their behavior on the ground. In addition to spotting poachers and protecting rhinos, the AI is helping keep track of other species. The drones can also spot giraffe, elephant and zebra herds.In short, AI is making a big difference to wildlife conservation as eyes in the sky, and it's just getting started.Northrop Grumman is committed to promoting conservation and inspiring the next generation of environmental stewards. Learn more about our environmental stewardship. 

Wildlife Conservation: How Are Drones Used in Wildlife Monitoring?

One of the best — and worst — parts of home craft projects with kids usually involves spreading sparkly stuff around. You may also find glitter at schools, music festivals, in boat paint, and even in cosmetics for added glitz and glam. However, glitter isn't just annoying to get out of clothes and carpets; it's a pollutant. This microplastic craft material definitely does not belong in nature, but without an eco-friendly glitter alternative, it is difficult to prevent it from washing down drains.   But all is not lost! Researchers have found biodegradable materials inspired by biomimicry that could potentially replace it in shiny craft and cosmetics. Made from long ribbons of cellulose nanocrystals, this eco-friendly glitter could take over the crafting and festivals scene.   Glitter as a Pollutive Microplastic   Glitter may sparkle, but it has definitely lost its shine with the environment. The problem is both its size as much as its construction. As The Conversation describes, glitter is simply plastic in disguise. According to a BBC article, it's made out of a thin polyester PET plastic film core that's coated with aluminum and then capped with another plastic layer.   It's too small to pick up and dispose of manually, which means that a lot of glitter is simply washed away into our drains. From there, it makes its way into water courses and eventually the ocean. A letter in Geochemical Perspectives notes that these crafty particles have even been found at the bottom of the deepest ocean trenches. What's even more staggering is that in these depths, the abundance of glitter is comparable to highly polluted coastal waters such as the Yangtze River and the Strait of Georgia.   The Trouble With Glitter   Glitter is troublesome because of its size; it's easily gobbled up as food, where it fills tiny bellies with non-nutritive plastic trash. Insider explains that because it enters the lowest tiers of the food chain, it causes death by accumulation as larger and larger animals dine out. As the BBC article notes, lab studies showed that contamination in U.K. rivers reduced common plant abundance.   One of the main problems with glitter in the food chain is that the PET plastics hold toxins that slowly leach out inside the host or into the environment. These toxins can also include hormone disruptors that affect fertility, behavior and health in general. The plastics last for years, degrading only very slowly, so the release of toxins is prolonged. Fast Company also notes that there is some evidence that microplastics can also lodge in our body tissues. When trapped here, it could lead to chronic inflammation. Initial research shows that microplastics embedded within tissues trigger an immune system reaction. This is definitely concerning since chronic inflammation can lead to other disease, including cancer.   Biodegradable Materials   Modern glitter has been around since 1934, and until recently, no eco-friendly alternatives were available. Even bioglitters were not truly biodegradable since they often just contained less plastic and required very specific composting to break down properly.   According to Green Matters, bioglitter could still cause environmental damage. In fact, not only does plant-based bioglitter still contain plastic and aluminum, but it's also been shown to stunt freshwater plant root growth, reduce phytoplankton abundance and lead to an increase in invasive land snails.   Since around 2016, many festivals now ban use of glitter because of its impact on waterways.   Eco-Friendly Glitter   However, the arrival of a promising eco-friendly glitter could make festivals and children's crafts sparkle once again. Science News describes how researchers took inspiration from nature to make glitter from plants.   The study, reported in Nature Materials, describes how the team explored industrial production of ribbon films created from cellulose nanocrystals. The team was first inspired by a plant from forested regions of Africa, Pollia condensata, in which cellulose patterns in cell walls create shimmery blue marble berries as fruits. They were able to mimic this pattern by creating nanoscale cellulose fiber patterns that would reflect light.   Using a roll-to-roll deposition process, the researchers were able to expand production to industrial-scale lengths of the product. These sheets could then be ground down into particles as eco-friendly glitter. Not only is the process sustainable, since the starting materials come from plants, but the glitter produced can replace toxic and pollutive materials for safer arts and crafts.   Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery. 

Eco-Friendly Glitter Alternatives Sparkle With Biodegradable Materials

If a person is going green by setting out to make the world a cleaner, greener place through everyday tasks, the first items to come to mind might be activities like recycling, planting trees, buying used items or driving a hybrid car.  How about not driving at all — at least, when possible? For Pete Moss, a Northrop Grumman accounting coordinator, that method has paid big dividends in time and money saved while reducing his impact on the environment.  Moss describes how an innovative management program helped him start a going green solution that could work for many others.  "During a department meeting two years ago, we developed a system of work-at-home awards based on cash forecasting accuracy, and through that I started telecommuting once a week, avoiding the 80-minute round-trip commute. This award system has been greatly received but I wanted to see if it could be expanded. In today's highly mobile society, one of the most sought-after benefits that today's job applicants look for is a workplace that's more adaptable to the needs of our ever-busy lifestyles. While I know the ability to work from home is not possible for everyone, I want to use my case as an example of how doing it once a week can achieve positive financial, environmental, retention and engagement benefits."  Here's how the good news stacked up for Moss and the environment during the course of a year by telecommuting once a week:  Â· 4,587 miles not driven  Â· $437.85 saved through 208.5 fewer gallons of gas purchased at $2.10/gallon  Â· 83 hours commuting time saved  Â· About $100 for routine maintenance saved  Â· About two tons less carbon dioxide dumped into the atmosphere, as well as less carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides and particulates that come from burning gas If 10,000 employees with similar commutes telecommuted once a week, it would translate to about 40 million pounds less CO2 in the atmosphere per year — not to mention some easing of the gridlock on our freeways. And then there are the intangible benefits, such as less stress in dealing with that gridlock. It truly affects quality of life.  Many people struggle to strike the right work/life balance. Finding an adaptable employer that offers some flexibility in working arrangements is a top-criteria item to many job seekers. So if a company is seen as that kind of employer, all the better. According to ApplicantPro.com, Dell, a computer industry leader, is aiming to have 50 percent of its global workforce on flexible schedules by 2020. And if more employees start telecommuting, at least occasionally, the benefits can extend beyond these factors to the bottom line. Companies across the nation could save thousands in building rental space alone, plus all the overhead that goes with them. Encouraging more and more employees to work flexible schedules has saved Dell $21 million since 2013 in real estate costs alone.  Lower expenses mean companies can lower their rates, beat the competition and gain market share. Now you've got the attention of the accountants and the C-suite. Not too bad for creating a commute that goes just down the hall.

Going Green From Home

The impact of discarded plastic waste threatens our natural world. From the sacred Ganges River to the pristine Arctic Ocean, marine life is in danger from physical entanglement, starvation and poisoning, simply by mistaking floating plastics as food. Until recently, scientists thought sea life ate plastics because the floating debris looks a lot like food; a hungry sea turtle could easily mistake a plastic bag for a jellyfish. But a paper published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society shows that plastic pollution in the ocean also smells like food. Why Is There a Plastic Buffet in Our Oceans? The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) notes that of the 300 million tons of plastic produced every year, around 8 million tons end up in the ocean. Some of this is accidental from container shipping accidents, but most comes from land-based disposal. Inadequate waste handling — from storm or sewage outflow to beach littering and industrial output — means that our discarded plastics contribute around 80% of all ocean debris. Marine life then comes into contact with plastics at all levels; from surface layers to deep sea sediment, there's no escape. Furthermore, as plastic debris floats along the ocean surface, it's bombarded by UV energy. This makes it brittle so that wind and wave action break it down into smaller and smaller pieces. Of the 5 trillion or so pieces of plastic floating around, most are less than 10 mm (less than half an inch) in length. Bits of Plastic Smell Yummy to an Anchovy Microplastics and larger debris have been found in all sorts of ocean life, from zooplankton and krill to the bellies of fish and whales. Apart from mistaking shreds of plastic as food, the pollutants may also smell delicious to sea creatures. When plastic breaks down in the ocean, it's coated by algae, which makes it smell like food. Researchers found that when presented with biofouled plastic debris, shoals of anchovies displayed the same foraging behavior as they did when presented with a buffet of krill. The scientists concluded that the food-like smell might be another reason marine life nibbles on plastic. Once consumed, the plastic "food" is incredibly harmful. Not only does it crowd out real food in the gut and starve the animal, it also releases biotoxins that poison the host, reducing fertility and adversely changing behavior. However, it doesn't only affect the marine life; it rises higher up through the food chain all the way to us. What Can We Do? Plastics were originally developed to replace natural materials. The Smithsonian notes that this included creating a synthetic substitute to replace elephant ivory in billiard balls. However, the Center for Biological Diversity predicts that by 2050, there will be more plastics in the sea than fish. It's important to act now to prevent this. Reducing waste by replacing single use plastic items with reusable ones could impact plastic pollution in the ocean. As Vox notes, "plastic bans are in vogue;" many countries have started initiatives to reduce plastic straws and shopping bags. Countries have also banned plastic microbeads from personal care products. Outreach programs, such as the Plastic Seas initiative from Earth Ocean, spread awareness by bringing the problem into classrooms. Stopping waste from reaching the ocean is one strategy but what about removing the plastic that's already there? The Ocean Cleanup project uses passive boom systems to concentrate waste in ocean gyres for more efficient removal. The organization also has an interceptor solution that stops plastics in rivers from reaching the oceans in the first place. Another removal strategy uses carbon nanosprings that accelerate microplastic breakdown. University of Adelaide researchers created the magnetic coils that generate reactive oxygen species to break down microplastics so they dissolve quickly in wastewater before reaching the sea. Being magnetic, the nanosprings can also be removed easily for repeated use. Other tactics focus on changing how plastics are made. Scientific American describes how changing the formulation could create fully recyclable plastic that can be reused over and over again in manufacturing. It might also give us a biodegradable plastic that breaks down fully in water to avoid becoming part of the marine buffet.

Marine Life Is Harmed by Plastic Pollution That Smells Like Food

Successfully reducing marine pollution requires both environmental activism and government regulation to stop land-based trash from ending up in the sea. For instance, companies like Starbucks and Disney are phasing out single-use drinking straws from their businesses. "Disney estimates that it will reduce their annual plastic footprint by 175 million plastic straws and 13 million stirrers," said TIME. Plastics pollution affects oceans all over the world. Even the once pristine Arctic Ocean has microplastics contaminating the food chain and plastic degradation leaching chemicals into the seawater. This October, an environmental initiative called Expedition: Plastic Seas from nonprofit organization EarthEcho International will bring marine plastics pollution into the classroom to inspire a new generation of environmental activism. Plastic Is Polluting the Ocean Pollution with marine plastics causes problems large and small. Ocean currents and gyres build visible garbage patches that stretch for miles. As they degrade, explained the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), plastics break down into smaller and smaller particles. Although mostly invisible to us, they still cause problems. CBC reported research showing that shellfish and plankton eat microplastics, mistaking them for food. Overall, EarthEcho observed that Australia has seen an increase of 14 percent in coastal population between 2001 and 2009, and this rapid growth is affecting the coastal ecosystem. The Plastic Seas initiative focuses on the impact of marine plastics in Port Philip Bay, as well as the impact of rapid population growth in nearby Melbourne on coastal areas. Educating Teachers About Environmental Initiatives Awareness will be brought to the classroom through Expedition: Plastic Seas. Australian teachers are invited to explore the effects of plastic pollution on their southwestern coastline. In collaboration with researchers, local activists and other experts, the teachers will develop educational materials to inspire the next generation of innovators, activists and engineers. According to EarthEcho CEO Philippe Cousteau, Jr., expeditions provide educators with "'a firsthand opportunity to experience environmental issues and meet people who are developing solutions to solve them.'" The initiative is sponsored by the Northrop Grumman Foundation. This is the second year that the foundation has worked with EarthEcho. The Northrop Grumman Foundation supports and encourages new STEM students around the world, focusing on programs from preschool to college level. Working closely with educators and outreach programs, such as Expedition: Plastic Seas challenges, new generations of engineers will develop sustainable solutions and environmental initiatives.  Enable targeting cookies to view this content.   Expedition: Plastic Seas In a weeklong exploration with local researchers, policymakers, and marine and environmental experts, the teachers will discover how plastics affect the bay's marine environment. As Expedition Fellows, they will take part in on-site activities to tackle the pollution. From this, they create an educational module to take back to students:   A video exploring the impact of plastics in the bay  An environmental audit of impact  An examination of youth-led environmental initiatives  Profiles of STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) professionals active on the issue  In conjunction with live virtual events through the year, this module lets teachers bring the ocean to the classroom. They can engage their students with a firsthand account of the problem and show them how innovation is creating solutions. Challenging a New Generation in Environmental Activism The United Nations Environment Assembly highlights marine plastics pollution as an ongoing concern: It's important to develop solutions and challenge new generations. Immersing young students in the so-called plastic soup of marine pollution through environmental initiatives such as these helps bring the problem closer to home. Interested in saving the ocean? Check out Northrop Grumman's career page.

Environmental Initiative Brings Marine Plastics Pollution Into the Classroom

Artificial intelligence continues to generate excitement for its promise to revolutionize how computing and machines function. And that promise is already unfolding as AI is slowly becoming an everyday facet of life — guiding smart cars, solving unsolvable scientific problems, streamlining consumer transactions and more.But beyond the buzz is a little-discussed reality. AI consumes a lot of energy and leaves a Bigfoot-sized carbon footprint. That flip slide has spurred researchers to look at reducing AI's energy intake, and physicists in London believe they have a solution: nanomagnets.By using micron-scale magnets, the physicists removed the energy-draining software that's often behind AI processing. Instead of turning to machinery that needs a boost from an electrical grid, they relied on the basic laws of physics to "pose a question" and "receive an answer" from nanomagnets. If they and others can build on this work, nanomagnetic computing could be the green solution for future AI-driven tasks.Eliminating the Power-Hungry "Middleman"Put simply, AI is machines attempting to perform the thinking done by humans, which is known as natural thinking. But there are many categories and classifications to explain how AI works and specify its different aims. One such type of AI uses neural networks to mimic how the human brain works, also known as deep learning. Thousands or millions of processing nodes can form a neural network that, as MIT News explains, assigns and weighs mathematical values as it is trained to "learn" concepts from data.As a research team of physicists at Imperial College in London observed in their attempt to slash the energy used in AI, much of the math that powers neural networks today was originally used to describe the way magnets interact. It seemed like a great idea to apply this to AI, but there was one hitch: Using magnets in math proved to be too complex. No one knew how to enter or extract data. Eventually, silicone-based computers instead simulated how magnets would have mimicked the human brain.Pulled to the potential of what was left behind on that old drawing board, the Imperial College researchers went to work as they attempted to "cut out the middleman" of silicone-based computers.Physics, Instead of Electricity, Powers AI ModelingNanomagnets come in various states, behaving differently depending on their direction. Or, as Analytics Insight described it, when a group of nanomagnets is in an energy field, each magnet goes through different states of spin. How they interact with one another creates a pattern, eventually increasing the spins into nano-patterned arrays.In their experiments, the Imperial College researchers created a technique to make an AI-type prediction: Count the number of magnets in each state after the energy field has passed through and then reach an answer."How the magnets interact gives us all the information we need; the laws of physics themselves become the computer," said Kilian Stenning, one of the researchers. The research team say their findings mean these tiny magnets can be used for time-series prediction tasks such as predicting and regulating the insulin levels of diabetic patients. They also believe it could spell the end of energy-draining silicone-based computing.The End of Nuclear-Powered Rubik's Cube Solutions?A few years ago, researchers from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst assessed the energy patterns for the training of several large AI models. As MIT Technology Review reported, the researchers discovered that the process can emit the equivalent of more than 626,000 pounds of carbon dioxide — nearly five times the lifetime emissions of an average car, including those generated during manufacturing.The higher the efficiency of an AI model, the more energy consumed. Analytics Insight pointed to the power drawn by the Megatron-Turing natural language machine learning model (named in part after Alan Turing, an unsung hero of World War II and early computer scientist) as it trained on 45 terabytes of data. The model ran 512 V100 GPUs for nine days, needing as much as 27,648 kWh of power, much more than the 10,649 kWh an average household burns through in a year. The Imperial College researchers offered an even starker example: Training AI to solve a Rubik's cube used as much energy as two nuclear power stations running for an hour.Bringing AI Computing to a Tiny ScaleConsidering those comparisons, it's no wonder the Imperial College team was excited to say nanomagnetic computing "paves the way for getting rid of the computer software that does the energy-intensive simulation."According to the researchers, much of the energy that silicon-chip computers use to perform AI computing is wasted in the inefficient transport of electrons during processing and memory storage. Nanomagnets don't rely on the physical transport of particles such as electrons. They instead process and transfer information in the form of a "magnon" wave where each magnet affects the state of the surrounding magnets — with much less lost energy.Conventional computing must process and store information in separate processes; nanomagnetic computing combines them. That efficiency, the researchers contend, could make nanomagnetic computing up to 100,000 times more efficient than conventional computing.The Imperial College researchers now want to teach their nanomagnets how to process other data and eventually turn them into a real computing device. They view nanomagnetic computing as a more effective solution for powering AI modeling on the edge — for instance, enabling computers to efficiently process data where it's collected instead of sending it back to big data centers. With tiny magnets crunching complex datasets, your workplace could step up its AI game, and your smartphone could solve Rubik's cube-type problems wherever you are.Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Nanomagnets Could Drastically Cut the Energy Used in AI

According to NASA, there are more than 500,000 pieces of debris, or "space junk" the size of a marble or larger, orbiting the Earth. At least 20,000 of those objects are larger than a softball. All of the objects, which travel at speeds up to 17,500 mph, pose potential dangers to satellites orbiting the Earth, both now and in the future. Orbital debris (NASA Image) One way to potentially reduce these hazards, and the costs and risks of launching new satellites, would be to build and launch an on-orbit recycling system. Notionally, the system would have the ability to vaporize small existing space debris; recycle and recover manufacturing materials from existing satellites; and even perform in-space manufacturing of structural elements for new satellites. "Think of this space recycler as an on-orbit refinery, powered by that amazing source of energy in space called the sun," said Howard Eller, Advanced Missions Tech Fellow, Northrop Grumman Aeronautics Systems. Bringing the Sun into Focus In its basic form, the recycler would include a large parabolic reflector, perhaps 50 to 100 feet in diameter; a spherical crucible made of material with an extremely high melting point; a set of compartments in which different types of salvaged materials could be stored; and several robotic arms for capturing "dead" satellites or other space debris.  Space Junk Recycler (Northrop Grumman Artist Concept) The recycler's reflector would concentrate solar energy into a small spherical space, creating an intense source of heat. The heat could be used either to simply vaporize existing small debris, or to heat larger pieces of space debris in the recycler's crucible. The crucible could be rotated through the thermal flux like a rotisserie grill to heat the debris to a desired and uniform temperature. Using this approach, explains Eller, "we could selectively melt and capture material of type A, heat the crucible more to melt and capture material of type B and so on." Materials melted and captured at each stage of the recycling process could be stored in separate compartments in the form of ingots, or perhaps piped in real time to another part of the recycler as source material for in-space 3-D printing manufacturing operations. Any unneeded leftovers from the recycling process could be compressed into small pieces and vaporized by the solar concentrator. There could also be self-sustaining aspect to this recycler, adds Eller. "If the mirrored surface of the solar concentrator became contaminated, the recycler could vaporize a piece of scrap aluminum in such a way that material is deposited as a new thin and highly reflective layer on the mirror, effectively recoating it," he said. Scavenging the Graveyard An ideal source of dead satellites for the recycler would be so-called "graveyard" orbits several hundred kilometers above geosynchronous (22,500 miles) altitude. Satellites are typically "safed" (batteries drained, propellant tanks emptied) and placed in a graveyard orbit at the end of their operational lives to reduce the chance of colliding with an operational spacecraft.  Space recycler captures "dead" satellite (Northrop Grumman artist concept) According to Eller, a recycler could either be placed in a relatively fixed location in orbit where dead satellites could be brought for recycling, or the entire facility could maneuver from satellite to satellite in a graveyard orbit. In theory, an in-space 3-D manufacturing facility could be attached to the other end of the recycler. As old satellites are ingested (think PacMan) and converted to raw materials, new satellite structures would be produced and pushed out the other end for in-space assembly.  Smarter, Lighter, Cheaper The ability to perform on-orbit recycling and manufacturing could also enable a new generation of simpler, lighter and potentially more capable satellite systems. Free from the impact of gravitational forces during launch, satellites could be assembled in space using simpler designs and materials with far less mass and structural strength. As a result, they might look very different from traditional spacecraft buses, which are essentially boxes with one or more solar array appendages. "If we built a satellite in space, it could be a single panel of any desired length," explains Eller. "One side could be an array of RF [radio frequency] elements and electronics, like a single large circuit board. You could produce additional panels to serve as solar arrays, or perhaps attach solar cells to the back of the original panel." After building this "panelsat" in orbit, you could plug in a module launched from Earth containing all of the electronic or spacecraft bus components that are currently too difficult to produce in space. Working the Vision In the end, admits Eller, space recycling is a vision that should be driven by economics. It makes perfect sense to recycle existing satellites because they are made of the materials most often needed to make new satellites. "But right now there is no financial incentive to get rid of space debris," he says. "That's why we should develop this or similar concepts as a nation. If we can figure out a way to convert dead satellites from a waste product into an economic benefit, recycling in space will happen." # # # If you'd like to explore a career helping Northrop Grumman unravel the mysteries and technical challenges of space exploration, please contact us at www.careers.northropgrumman.com.

How to Recycle Space Debris and Reduce Launch Costs

Scientists are developing technology to make sustainable space travel possible. As NASA prepares for long term space missions to the moon, Mars and beyond, many challenges remain. The future of space travel requires solutions for long-duration missions with limited resources. They will need access to fuel and the essential elements that sustain life. Scientists recently demonstrated a possible solution by splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen in zero gravity using a semiconductor material and light. Challenges for Sustainable Space Travel It's already difficult for astronauts to live at the International Space Station (ISS) and that's a well-established station located nearby in low earth orbit. Longer missions will be even trickier. According to NASA, the ISS uses a system that recycles approximately 90% of the water and 42% of the oxygen in the spacecraft. The system purifies the crew's waste — including urine and sweat — and turns it into potable water for the crew to drink. Still, cargo spacecraft regularly visit the space station to supplement essential supplies and replace some of the system's components. How will future astronauts get the elements they need to survive on long-term space missions? What will fuel their spaceships and the electronic gadgets they'll need onboard? Fuel Cell Space Vehicles The Conversation reports that an international team of researchers demonstrated that it is possible to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water using a semiconductor material and sunlight (or light from any star) in zero gravity. These findings, which are published in Nature Communications, are a step toward long-term space travel with storable, renewable energy. While water may be a relatively heavy supply for space travel, it's a reasonable option because it provides a two-for-one, with hydrogen for fuel and oxygen for astronauts to breathe. Plus, it can be recycled, making sustainable space travel possible. As a bonus, launching a space vehicle loaded with water is safer than the potentially explosive alternative of rocket fuel and oxygen. If this idea is going to be realistic, scientists need to develop a method for splitting water apart and putting it back together again. They're working on how to create water from oxygen and hydrogen, plus the opposite. The Process In space, we don't have the luxury of plants releasing oxygen, but we can mimic photosynthesis. According to the Conversation, water can be split into hydrogen and oxygen via electrolysis, where scientists run an electric current through a water sample that contains a soluble electrolyte. A new version is even better for space travel because it uses lightweight equipment and sunlight (or starlight). While solar power is useful on earth, it's even more abundant in space, where light isn't filtered through an atmosphere. In this alternative method, photo catalysts absorb photons into a semiconductor material in the water. The researchers explain in Nature, "The photoelectrochemical cell consists of an integrated catalyst-functionalized semiconductor system that generates hydrogen." As a bonus that will be especially useful with limited resources in space, the process can be reversed. How to Create Water From Oxygen and Hydrogen The hydrogen and oxygen can be recombined, according to the Conversation, "using a fuel cell returning the solar energy taken in by the photocatalysis." This energy can be used to power electronics, and it produces water that can be reused. Drop Tower Testing To test their system, the researchers dropped their experiment down a 120-meter tower. As the object accelerated toward Earth, the "drop tower" simulates microgravity by creating an opposite effect to the G forces that astronauts experience during lift-off. The Bubble Problem While the researchers did successfully split water into hydrogen and oxygen in this microgravity environment, a big challenge popped up: bubbles. When the water is split to create gas, bubbles form. On Earth, gravity causes the bubbles to float to the surface, but in zero gravity the bubble lurks near the catalyst, blocking the next potential bubble, and therefore obstructing overall gas production. They attempted to fix the bubble problem by creating pyramid-shaped zones on the catalyst so that the bubble could easily move from the pointed tip and float away. But even though this forced the bubbles away from the catalyst, without gravity, they remain in the liquid and create a pesky foam that blocks the catalyst and electrodes, making the whole system inefficient. Despite these remaining challenges, the new water-splitting method proves that there's great potential for sustainable space travel in the future. Advanced technology and creative scientific processes can make the most of limited resources, on Earth and in space.

Recycling in Zero Gravity for Sustainable Space Travel

Imagine driving along a roadway that produces energy from the sun or the motion of your vehicle. Or, finding your way on a street that lights up at night without using energy. These are a few of the innovative road solutions that could change the way we travel each day. There are nearly 36 million miles of roads in 223 countries across the globe, as cited by the CIA Factbook. Most of those roads were made from petroleum products and other chemicals that have a lingering environmental impact throughout their life cycle, according to the National Asphalt Paving Association. Some recent technological innovations have uncovered potential solutions for transforming traditional roadways into useful infrastructure that also contributes to a positive impact for our planet. Plastic Roads and Technological Innovations Discarded plastics are choking the oceans and landfills, and some companies are taking those castoffs and turning them into road materials. In England, startup MacRebur gathers plastic waste and grinds it up for use in road materials. The pulverized plastic replaces an oil-based substance known as bitumen, which binds sand, rock and limestone into an asphalt surface. Roads made with the new material are less likely to crack and can help improve vehicle gas mileage, reported The Drive.com. Netherlands construction firm VolkerWessels plans to salvage plastic pollution from coastal areas and convert it into lightweight, maintenance-free prefabricated roadway modules with hollow interiors that can be fitted with electrical cables and drainpipes. In 2016, about 1.5 percent of traffic accidents in India were due to poor road conditions, according to a government report. To sustainably improve roadway safety, the government has invested in technology to build roads with recycled plastics. So far, more than 100,000 kilometers of the road has been laid, and each kilometer of single-lane road consumes a metric ton of plastic waste. The plastic's flexibility means the road lasts two to three times longer than conventional surfaces and reduces the risk of potholes. Sunshine-Powered Roads With millions of miles of roads lining the world, turning streets into solar power generators seems to make sense, according to a report from Singularity Hub. In China, an effort is underway to build a two-kilometer (1.2 miles) stretch of solar road using a new type of transparent asphalt, one of several such efforts around the globe, according to Singularity Hub. In a small village in France, a one-kilometer (0.6 miles) road boasts 30,000 square feet of solar panel, and officials hope to be able to power the village's streetlights, Fast Company noted.  Grid-free Lighting In a small town outside Amsterdam, a 15,000-foot stretch of a highway has no streetlights. Instead, stripes of bright green paint guide cars through the darkness, like airport runway lighting. Researchers developed a high-powered glow-in-the-dark paint that absorbs solar energy during the day and releases it at night, reported Wired. The goal, the designer said, is to replace streetlights with solar-powered lighted roads someday. A bike path in Poland uses different technology to achieve a similar bioluminescent lighting effect. The pathway, made with phosphor, can emit light for up to 10 hours, explained CityLab. Researchers in Mexico developed a new formula to make phosphorescent cement that stores solar energy and emits it as light for up to 12 hours, according to Scientific American. The material could be a boon for developing nations or remote areas that don't have access to a steady supply of electricity. Molecules in Motion  In the United Kingdom, the average road carries up to 3,000 cars per hour, and innovative road solutions can transform that traffic movement into electricity. These kinetic roads use the piezoelectric effect to convert mechanical motion into electricity, according to Phys.org. Kinetic roads could generate enough electricity to power streetlights and traffic signals and provide traffic data for real-time monitoring. Underground Power, an Italian startup, has developed Lybra, a tire-like rubber paving material that absorbs kinetic energy from passing vehicles and can produce "the equivalent of energy used by 40 families." Are you interested in a job that puts you on the front line of technology innovations? Consider a career with Northrop Grumman.

Innovative Road Solutions Could Make Highway Travel Eco-Friendly

As the population grows and income inequality increases along with it, creating affordable housing becomes more challenging. While plastic has been a dirty word in environmental circles for decades, it could hold the key to affordable and sustainable housing. Architects and city planners are looking at uses for plastic that harness environmental technology to build housing for those struggling to make ends meet.  NPR reported that in 2017 China passed the National Sword policy, banning plastic waste from being imported for recycling. This law, which went into effect in January of this year, states that China will no longer be responsible for recycling plastic waste imported from other countries, citing protection of the environment.   Western countries like the U.S. and Mexico, however, have to figure out new ways to recycle materials like plastic, according to Export.gov.   Creating Afforable Housing With Plastic   Globally, plastic waste is reaching catastrophic levels. It's filling up landfills, clogging waterways, and choking coral and sea life. To combat this epidemic, new uses for plastic are being brainstormed by researchers and governments alike.   According to OECD.org, seven out of every 10 Mexicans are living in a state of poverty. Mexican startup company EcoDom hopes to help mitigate this by using recyclables to construct affordable homes.   EcoDom is collecting plastic and melting it down to create walls that can become the building blocks of viable structures for affordable housing. Each house is built in a week's time and uses two tons of plastic. The plastic collected is sorted to find the types that will not emit harmful fumes when melted down. The company sells the individual pieces to local governments at a low price; the agency in charge of housing then builds the homes and sells them to low-income families, according to Unreasonable.   Is the U.S. On Board With Plastic Waste Initiatives?   Initiatives to combat our growing waste problems are catching on across the globe, but could they work to tackle the mounting plastic waste issues the United States is facing?   According to National Geographic, about 91 percent of recyclable plastic in the U.S. ends up in landfills or oceans, partly because of complicated recycling guidelines. Startups across the country have been trying to find ways to combat our existing landfill and waste issues. One company, ByFusion, started an Indiegogo campaign last year to raise money to fund ByBlocker, a machine they created that compresses any type of plastic waste into blocks. According to ByFusion, these blocks are viable building materials, which are ideal for insulation, non-load bearing walls and retaining walls — especially interesting given rising sea levels.   That said, reactions to these kinds of projects in the U.S. are mixed; ByFusion didn't meet even half of its funding goal.   It's a Group Effort   It's going to take a lot of ingenuity to bring down the levels of plastic waste globally. It's also going to take a lot of convincing. Consumers, corporations and governments especially need to be onboard with these initiatives, buy their products, invest in environmental technology and become part of the solution to this collective problem.

Finding Uses For Plastic in Affordable Housing and Building

For those who live on Easter Island, a remote Chilean territory in the South Pacific Ocean, eliminating plastic bags and other plastic waste has reached critical levels. Although the island is more than 1,200 miles from its nearest neighbor, plastic litters its shores. The pollution comes in from a swirling mass of garbage that floats far offshore and is one-and-half times the size of Texas, reports PBS.  It's not just in the ocean, either. Broken-down bits of plastic, called microplastics, are in the soil, in drinking water and in the air we breathe. Chemicals added to plastics to make them colorful, flexible, rigid, heat-resistant and more could be harmful to the health of animals and people. Plastics also attract heavy metals and other contaminants like pesticides that are poisonous, reports Discover. Although the potential health effects of ingesting microplastics are still largely unknown, many local, state and national governments are eliminating plastic bags and searching for alternatives to plastic packaging. But even if society can turn completely turn away from plastic, what will it do with the products already manufactured and the plastic bits infiltrating the environment? The solution may lie in a tiny organism hungry for this ubiquitous pollutant. The Plastic Picture Plastic waste and the proliferation of microplastics in the environment is just one facet of the plastic problem. Producing plastic and transporting it requires fossil fuels and emits greenhouse gases. According to a 2019 report from the Center for International Environmental Law, producing and incinerating plastic in 2019 generated an amount of greenhouse gases equivalent to that of 189 coal-fired power plants. Researchers at the center say that if production continues on the same path, plastic-related greenhouse gas emissions in 2030 will reach a level on par with 295 coal plants. By 2050, emissions will be about the same as 615 coal plants. In an effort to reduce plastic waste and lower emissions, some agencies and governments see eliminating plastic bags as a first step in the right direction. These bags, which are distributed widely by retail stores, are very thin, typically used just once, are rarely recycled and kill at least 100,000 marine animals annually, according to the Center for Biological Diversity. Each year, 12 million barrels of oil are used to manufacture the 100 billion bags Americans use and toss out, the center says. Although the United States has not committed to a national ban, states such as California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Maine, New York, Oregon and Vermont have outlawed them, reports the National Conference on State Legislatures. As of early 2019, at least 127 countries had implemented some form of restriction, regulation or fee to reduce the use of plastic bags, says the World Resources Institute. Alternatives to Plastic Packaging Even as local, state and national legislators write up policies to reduce or restrict the use of plastic, other groups are developing alternatives. In 2018, the Ellen MacArthur Foundation launched their New Plastics Economy initiative in collaboration with the United Nations' Environment Program. The initiative aims to "eliminate all problematic and unnecessary plastic items, innovate to ensure that the plastics we do need are reusable, recyclable or compostable and circulate all the plastic items we use to keep them in the economy and out of the environment," the website says. A $2 million innovation prize awarded to 12 teams has laid the foundation for some plastic packaging substitutes. For instance, researchers at the VTT Technical Research Center of Finland demonstrated a way to make a compostable, multi-layer material derived from wood, rice, sugar cane tops, recycled fibers, textile waste and agricultural residues. Recyclable and biodegradable, the plastic-like film could be used to package a range of foods, from cereals to nuts to meats and cheeses. An Indonesian startup company called Evoware created food wrappings from a seaweed-based material that can be dissolved and eaten. Elsewhere around the world, entrepreneurs are innovating solutions to the plastic packaging problem. The Israel-based startup TIPA, for example, makes plant-based packaging that fully composts in 180 days. New York-based Ecovative Design combines agricultural waste with mushroom roots, called mycelium, to make a compostable Styrofoam-like product. The company has even created kits that let customers grow their own packaging. And Saltwater Brewery in Delray Beach, Florida, turned notorious six-pack rings into something beneficial. Using barley and wheat remnants that are a by-product of the brewing process, the team developed biodegradable, compostable and edible six-pack rings. If these products end up in the ocean, they become food for sea life. Making a Meal Out of Plastic Even if every person in the world stopped using plastic tomorrow, we would still need to contend with the billions of pounds of plastic that has already covered the planet. Morgan Vague, a biology student at Reed College in Oregon, thinks she may have found a way to eliminate a large portion of it, reports the The Science Times. Vague discovered a naturally occurring bacteria that consumes one of the most common plastics in the world, called polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and breaks it down into harmless by-products. Vague found the bacteria after sampling water and soil from around her hometown of Houston, Texas. The student reasoned that because Houston had so many petroleum-polluting industries, she might get lucky and find bacteria that had adapted to living off the same molecules that make up plastic. After testing 300 strains of bacteria for a fat-digesting enzyme called lipase, which breaks down plastic to make it edible, Vague found 20 species. She then narrowed that group down to three bacterial candidates and fed them a diet of PET that she'd gotten from water bottles. The bacteria consumed the plastic. In a TED talk, Vague explained that although the process is natural, it's slow. To speed things up, she has the idea of dousing plastic in ultraviolet light to "tenderize" it and make it easier for the bacteria to consume. Eventually, she wants to create a contained, industrial-scale, carbon-free system that essentially composts plastic waste. "Imagine one day being able to dispose of all of your plastic waste at the curb in a bin that you knew was bound for a dedicated, bacteria-powered plastic waste facility," Vague told the audience. Vague acknowledges that her bacteria are just one part of a larger solution to the plastic problem. The challenge is so huge that it will take a variety of policy measures and innovative tactics to affect change. But by eliminating plastic bags and searching for viable alternatives to plastic packaging, humans could turn the tide on this environmental disaster.

Eliminating Plastic Bags Opens Up New Alternatives to Packaging

 Most buildings in which we spend our lives are not as green as they could be. Their construction can generate lots of waste; once they're up and running, inefficient use of energy and water could unnecessarily tax environmental resources, or even make human inhabitants sick. As humanity seeks to reduce its impact on the planet, innovators are turning to new technology to create more sustainable green buildings. The resulting cities might be better — not only for the environment but also for the humans that inhabit them.LEED Standards Today, the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) standards are among the most popular worldwide to help homes and businesses use resources more efficiently. These standards outline how much energy and water should be used in the building and what kinds of materials use the fewest possible toxic chemicals. Building designers then get creative about how to fit the needs of the building within these parameters. They can make the building more efficient by careful selection of construction materials, good insulation and window placement to keep the interior warm during the winter and cool in the summer. Then they can add on technology to reduce the building's footprint, heating the building with natural gas or incorporating efficient fixtures like water-conserving toilets and energy-efficient light bulbs. As more LEED-certified buildings are constructed, their impact could be huge. Green building is expected to add 3.9 million jobs to the economy by 2018, according to a 2015 report from the U.S. Green Building Council. A separate report from the U.S. Department of Energy found that LEED-certified buildings can revitalize neighborhoods; people who work in green buildings are less likely to skip work and tend to be healthier, too, as they are exposed to fewer pollutants. Environmentally conscious companies are leading the way by constructing a growing number of facilities according to LEED standards — Northrop Grumman, for example, has eight LEED-certified facilities across the United States. Companies like these understand that green buildings benefit more than just the environment and communities — they make businesses more competitive.Smart Systems Another way engineers are looking to reduce the environmental impact of individual buildings is by creating sophisticated systems to monitor energy use. That way, they'll know what kinds of interventions can cut down on the amount of energy being used in the building. Data collected by internet-connected sensors and processed by artificial intelligence systems will make individual buildings more efficient. Companies such as ON World are developing smart lighting systems that can automatically adjust lighting based on occupancy and the time of day; others, such as Verdigris, are targeting manufacturing to reduce wasted energy. Many of these systems also incorporate sophisticated thermostats to save on energy used in heating and cooling; researchers from MIT have created a system called "Local Warming" that only heats spaces when they are occupied.Smart Grid Instead of focusing on individual buildings, some engineers are looking at cities overall in order to reduce the use of resources. One big push is to make better use of a city's electricity through a "smart grid." More homes and businesses are generating their own renewable power on-site, using techniques such as solar panels — two of Northrop Grumman's operating facilities, for example, were recognized by the Environmental Protection Agency for their energy-efficient equipment and building-systems design, according to NGC's forthcoming Corporate Responsibility Report. As the cost of this technology drops, more buildings are expected to do the same in the future. Any unused energy can be diverted to the larger electrical grid, creating a profit for the building owner and more efficient energy use citywide. In order for smart grids to become widespread and profitable for those involved, better technology is needed. Ideally, these systems could efficiently send electricity to the buildings that need it. Several companies, such as Tendril and Groom Energy, have designed software that measures how much electricity the building is using and how much can be contributed to the grid. Partnership between private industry and government will further facilitate more efficient energy use; according to a U.S. Department of Energy webpage: "To move forward, we need a new kind of electric grid, one that is built from the bottom up to handle the groundswell of digital and computerized equipment and technology dependent on it — and one that can automate and manage the increasing complexity and needs of electricity in the 21st century."Smart Money Green buildings clearly have many benefits, but some prospective builders choose not to build them because they assume they would be more expensive. In fact, studies have found that, in the long term, green buildings cost about the same as their traditional counterparts. They may seem to cost more up front, as more efficient building materials and installations may be more expensive, but ultimately these reduce operating costs. Green building owners save on electricity, water and heating bills — they could even make some extra money selling energy back to the grid. As more of the world's population moves to cities, and as resources like energy and water are put under greater strain, green buildings will become even more important. You might be working in a smart building — or even living in a smart city — sooner than you think. And chances are, your life will be enriched from it.

How Green Buildings Could Change Cities

  Manufacturing industries are in the middle of the largest technology revolution to hit the factory floor since Henry Ford introduced the automotive assembly line more than a hundred years ago. In fact, a strong case could be made that today's manufacturing revolution is even more sweeping than the changes that gave birth to the now-traditional assembly line. The mass production factories of the 1920s were merely the culmination of manufacturing trends that had been developing for generations. In contrast, the "mass customization" factories of the 2020s and beyond will combine multiple new technologies to completely reshape how we think about making stuff. Meanwhile, at Manufacturing Business Technology, Mark Dohnalek takes a deep dive into five ways that new technologies — and new ways of thinking — are set to transform the factory starting this year and into the next decade. 3-D Printing and the Art of the Prototype  At first glance, so-called 3-D printing technology seems to aim not at transforming factories but at making them disappear entirely, by allowing people to print up any manufactured product at home. But real life is not quite that simple. An optimized facility, staffed by production experts — in other words, a factory — will always have advantages over do-it-yourself home printing. Inside the factory, 3-D printing may revolutionize many processes, but its first big impact is on prototyping, making samples of a new product. This is always necessary, because (for example) you can never be quite sure how an object will fit in your hand until you hold it. With 3-D printing, production teams can make a prototype, evaluate it and make an improved model in less time than it formerly took to make a single prototype. Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) Like 3-D printing, these technologies play their biggest part in the product development stage. They allow development and production team members, in effect, to walk around and through blueprints, ensuring, for example, that components that are supposed to be accessible for maintenance really are accessible. Even more important in the long run than helping the design and production team to prototype and visualize a product is helping to ensure that it meets the needs of the eventual users. These end users may well be military service members in the field, whose lives depend on the product working correctly, first time and every time. Accelerated Product Life Cycles This sounds a bit like jargon, and it is, but it makes a fundamental point. Advanced technologies are fast moving, and those service members in the field can't wait for next year's improved model. If improvements are available, they are needed as soon as possible — tomorrow, if not today. This is related to the largest way that tomorrow's factories differ from yesterday's. Instead of producing thousands or millions of identical products, "mass customization" requires the modern factory to turn out endless variations on products, tailored to specific users and specific needs. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Human Intelligence Keeping track of all these variations — and helping production teams develop them — ultimately relies on human intelligence, which alone can make final decisions on what suits the needs of human users. But AI can help smart people keep up with a sheer workload of innovations and variations that would otherwise be overwhelming. For example, AIs are good at instantly spotting possible manufacturing errors, so that production teams can jump on the problem at once, instead of having to wait until possibly thousands of defective products have been manufactured, with resulting waste and delay. Sustainable Manufacturing In a nutshell, waste is wasteful. People have always known this ("waste not, want not"), but older limited technologies made a good deal of waste unavoidable. Technology progress along multiple fronts, from improved prototyping to a host of specific manufacturing technologies, is allowing us to eliminate wasteful processes, producing both environmental benefits and greater production efficiencies. The traditional production-line factory made cars, computers and a host of other products affordable for the first time. But this came at the price of constraints such as uniformity and standardization. The new manufacturing era is breaking through these old constraints, making it possible for tomorrow's factories — and even today's — to turn out a vastly wider range of customized products able to meet users' exact needs, in ways previously undreamed of.

5 Ways Factories are Tooling Up for the 2020s

 Enable targeting cookies to view this content.   At the annual Farm Progress Show in Iowa in 2016, growers gawked at what some are describing as the beginning of a new agricultural revolution: a self-driving tractor that takes humans out of the loop entirely.    The Case IH Autonomous Concept Vehicle can go from parking spot to field and back by itself. It can be operated and monitored remotely via tablet as it follows preset paths for planting, harvesting or other farming tasks. Equipped with sensors for automatic navigation and obstacle avoidance, it can work around the clock, boosting productivity.    While the prototype turned heads because it eliminates the driver's cab, varying amounts of automation have been incorporated into tractors and agricultural equipment for years. In fact, robots are already on the farm doing everything from seeding and harvesting to milking. Aerial drones are being used to survey and spray crops. Automated lettuce thinners, grape-leaf pullers and weed killers are taking on difficult, repetitive jobs and doing them more quickly and efficiently than human workers. Along with GPS and satellite technology used to guide tractors and map fields, these robots are part of a new farm revolution known as precision agriculture.    Many More Mouths to Feed    In a 2016 report on precision farming, Goldman Sachs said it sees a $240-billion market for automation on the farm, including a $45-billion market for small driverless tractors alone. Besides saving time and money, these robotractors would bring benefits such as a lower rate of soil compaction — which means better yields — because of their lighter weight compared to manual tractors. The report estimates that automation on the farm, along with technologies such as precision irrigation and planting, could help increase farm yields by more than 70 percent by 2050, when the global population is predicted to approach 10 billion.    "We will have a lot more people to feed than we ever have in history," says Jonathan Rogers, assistant professor of mechanical engineering at Georgia Tech. "The only way we can really achieve the level of food production we're going to need in the future is to employ automation and robots."    Meeting the huge demand from so many people will require some thinking outside the box. Rogers and colleagues recently developed an agricultural robot that's different from all the rest. Inspired by sloths and named Tarzan, the two-armed machine swings like a gibbon along parallel wires suspended above a field while imaging the crop. It's designed to stay in the field for long periods, photographing each plant so that farmers don't have to physically check for signs of wilting. Instead, they can remotely review imagery in real time, getting more frequent snapshots of their plants and saving them time spent on crop inspection.    Automate or Die?    With more and more robots swinging, flying and rolling around farmers' fields, what will happen to farmers and farm workers? Ever since the original Agricultural Revolution and then the Industrial Revolution, introducing automation at the workplace has raised concerns about displacing human labor, and recent debates surrounding robotics in U.S. manufacturing are no different.    The fact is that the percentage of the U.S. workforce engaged in agriculture has diminished drastically over the past two centuries while productivity has jumped due to the introduction of machinery. As University of Georgia economics professor Jeffrey Dorfman writes, "The history of mechanization in agriculture provides proof that huge numbers of workers can be replaced by machines without leading to mass unemployment."    In countries such as the U.S. and Japan, automation is increasingly being seen as the only way to deal with labor shortages caused by immigration crackdowns, aging populations or both.    "The trade-off isn't, do you want a machine or do you want workers," Michigan farmer Steve Tennes, who uses a machine that supports apple pickers, told Bloomberg in January 2017. "It's do you want to be in business or do you not want to be in business."

Robot Farmers Seeding the New Agricultural Revolution

 Light's ubiquitous nature means we can take optics, the science of light, for granted. After all, we know it's responsible for illuminating homes while sensors developed to detect light are used in everything from cameras to NASA's James Webb Space Telescope, a powerful window into the early universe. But, there's something extraordinary happening in nanophotonics: the observation of light on the smallest scale possible. While slight, the applications could help revolutionize science and technology.Light on the Smallest Scale Size does matter. That's definitely true with technology. When size shrinks, power and efficiency increases. There's less resistance, faster transmission speeds and better usage of power. That's why we have powerful computers that fit in the palm of our hand. Photonics, the study of photons, is following a similar trajectory. Fiber optics, lasers and solar panels are just a few examples of photonics we use every day. While solar panels are getting better at capturing and converting the sun's rays into energy, they are still too large to install in most homes. For city dwellers, you can forget about having a solar farm powering all your needs. Internet speeds up to a gigabit are a dream for most people, but cheaper fiber-optic cables could make that a reality. Instead of companies citing the astronomical cost of replacing copper wires with fiber, startups could offer a viable solution to slow downloads. Nanophotonics can help change that by exploring the interactions of light and objects on a wavelength or subwavelength scale. That same thinking is being applied across various technologies and could even change how we power homes or treat cancer.David Yeaton-Massey, a research scientist at Northrop Grumman, comments: "In addition to exploring how light and matter behave at these tiny sizes (the nanoscale), we're also exploring what happens at the smallest power scales possible; we want to explore how we can read and write information using individual photons." The Versatility of Optics Solar power, while great for the environment, is anything but efficient. Silicon-based solar panels are hovering around a 20 percent efficiency, with thinner solar films around 12 percent. When the sun's rays hit solar panels, most of the potential energy is reflected or diffused, thus reducing energy conversion. Nanophotonics can help solve the main issues with solar panels. Nanostructures can be created that better absorb the light. Another method involves guiding the light along the surface of the panel to reduce scatter. These nanostructures would reduce the size of solar panels, which would drastically reduce the cost while increasing efficiency. That's a win-win situation for consumers and the environment. Microscopes are also benefiting from nanophotonics. Manipulating light on the smallest level lets scientists develop new techniques to observe nanostructures or the inner workings of cells. Nanophotonics could make cancer treatments more specific, which would help reduce tumors and the negative effects of radiation therapy. A course of treatment could involve doctors injecting gold nanorods, developed to bond with specific cancer-related cells, into a patient. These nanorods would latch onto cancerous cells while ignoring healthy cells. The other advantage would involve the type of radiation used for treatment. Gold nanorods are great at absorbing near-infrared light while healthy human cells only absorb a small amount of this type of radiation. Doctors could use near-infrared lasers to reduce tumors with minimal damage to surrounding healthy cells. Even the old-fashioned light bulb, tossed aside in favor of more efficient LED bulbs, could stage a comeback courtesy of nanophotonics. As Yeaton-Massey suggests, there seems to be endless opportunities when it comes to the study of light on even the tiniest of scales. Perhaps you're the one who'll break new ground in the study of nanophotonics. Perhaps you can find such an opportunity at Northrop Grumman.

Nanophotonics: Small Scale, Big Impact

The roots of farming date back 12,000 years ago, when ancient humans traded their nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles for permanent settlements. But agricultural technology, or agritech, has only come onto the scene within the last few centuries. Mechanized plows and harvesters, synthetic fertilizer, genetic breeding and refrigeration have all improved yield, crop resilience and accessibility to food. It hasn't stopped there, though. New technology, including robotics, satellites and the so-called Internet of Things (IoT) promise to improve efficiency and sustainability and revolutionize farming around the world. Down on the Automated Farm By 2050, the world's population will reach 9.7 billion people, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. To feed them, the World Resources Institute notes that farmers will need to produce 56 percent more food. But since 1950, the number of farmers and farm workers has plummeted in all industrial nations — by as much as 80 percent in some regions, reports the Worldwatch Institute. Automating some of the processes could help reduce the demand for workers and improve efficiencies. That's where robots come in. Several agritech companies are developing bots that can handle repetitive, labor-intensive tasks, leaving the business end of farming to the farmer. For instance, the VR Lettuce Thinner from San Diego—based Vision Robotics uses computer vision to identify seedlings that may be growing too closely together, which can reduce yields. A precision sprayer directs weed killer to eliminate the unwanted lettuce seedlings. The company's website says that the machine covers 2 to 3 acres per hour — much faster than manually thinning — at an operating cost of $30 per acre. It can be modified to accommodate other crops, as well. Another company, Blue River, also uses computer vision, artificial intelligence and automated nozzles in their See & Spray robot. The machine distinguishes weeds from cotton crops and applies just enough herbicide to kill the nuisance plants. Such precision can reduce the use of these chemicals by up to 90 percent, the company claims. It could also make it possible for farmers to use more potent herbicides that shouldn't be widely sprayed using conventional methods. In 2017, Inc. named Blue River among the 25 Most Disruptive Companies of the Year. That same year, John Deere acquired Blue River for $305 million. 'Til the Drones Come Home New developments in drone and satellite technology are giving farmers a bird's eye view of their operation. For example, the satellite company, Planet, has 200 satellites circling Earth that daily stream images with 3 to 5 meters of resolution. Algorithms designed to analyze the images can compare one day's image to the next, revealing variations in vegetation and crop health. The data can help farmers optimize irrigation, determine optimum fertilizer distribution and tell whether crops have been struck by pests or disease. In 2018, DowDuPont's farm software business, Granular, struck a deal with Planet and is now using agricultural analytics tools to parse daily images of the globe for farmers, reports Wired. Other satellite companies, including Geosys, Planet Labs, Earthi and Astro Digital, are also working to provide farmers with image data that can help them better manage their farms. While satellites can give farmers a macro view of their acreage, drones can provide a high-resolution micro view. Companies such as SenseFly and AeroVironment have drones designed to fly directly into suspicious areas to get up-close views. High-resolution multi-spectral imagers coupled with machine learning can reveal a plant's health and analyze soil conditions. This information can help farmers customize sowing and manage the application of fertilizer and water, reports MarketWatch. Additionally, at least three companies are developing drones that can spray herbicides and pesticides, writes Precision Ag. Going IoT Wild Around the world, IoT devices are becoming ubiquitous. They include wireless gadgets, such as sensors or cameras, that communicate with each other and the internet. The devices are common in businesses and homes, but now they're also being used in farming as a way to monitor water supply, crops, livestock, bees and, perhaps one day, fish — all in real-time. According to AgriBusiness Global, IoT-enabled technologies could help farmers conserve as much as 90 percent of irrigation water, reduce chemical use by 30 to 50 percent, improve food quality and reduce food waste in the supply chain. In May 2019, the wireless company Nokia partnered with Brazil-based ConectarAGRO to put 500,000 farms online and enable them to use internet-connected robots, temperature and moisture sensors, drones and more, reports Successful Farming. These devices can also help monitor livestock: For the first time in the history of agriculture, farmers can have connected cows, sheep, chickens and more. Cowlar and SCR by Allflex both offer sensors that monitor individual dairy cows, tracking their health, nutrition and milk output. As agricultural technology comes online, access to rural broadband will be critical, as half the world lacks high-speed internet, according to the United Nations. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission reports that roughly 39 percent of people living in rural regions have no broadband. Robots, satellite, drones and IoT devices cannot reach their full potential without it. Fortunately, telecommunication companies have begun to build out their networks, and satellite companies are crafting plans to beam internet from space. In no time, the next tech-enabled green revolution will bring forth a bountiful harvest.

Advances in Agritech Herald a New Green Revolution

Water — we all know it's essential. And yet, in underprivileged communities all over the world, gaining access to clean water can be a major challenge. Experts estimate that 663 million people, nearly one tenth of the world's population, live without safe water. That's why organizations are turning to new technologies to make safe water available for everyone.Ease of Access"Dirty water is responsible for more deaths in the world than all forms of violence, including war," says Scott Harrison, the founder of the nonprofit charity: water that has funded more than 21,000 projects to bring safe, convenient water to millions of people all over the world. Harrison, along with dozens of other innovators, see a role for technology in their mission. So do companies with a technology focus who understand clean water connects to global security as well as humanitarian missions. Northrop Grumman's environmental sustainability programs have focused their efforts to address the global challenges surrounding clean water availability. The company sponsors organizations such as Water Wells for Africa, Water for People, and Engineers Without Borders which enable projects such as the drilling of new water wells in Malawi and development of water distribution and filtration systems in Nicaragua.In some communities, it's a struggle to simply get water to drink; on average, women and girls in developing countries walk 3.5 miles per day to get their water. It has long been a priority for aid organizations to install wells and pumps in towns so that residents only have to walk to the center of town to get water for their families instead of to rivers that are miles away. Some, such as charity: water, are giving those wells a techy upgrade by equipping them with sensors so that people all around the world can see if water is flowing and alert technicians if they stop working.In other places, however, wells simply aren't possible. So inventors have created new ways to bring the water to people. Some are using mesh to harvest water from fog. Though the technology to do this is already in use in more than a dozen countries, researchers from MIT are developing a more efficient material. Other innovations, such as Warka Water, are more elaborate installations that combine different water-harvesting techniques like collecting rainwater, dew and fog to provide communities with the water they need.Filtering Techniques on the RiseBut gaining access to water is only half the battle; if water is not properly treated, people can ingest bacteria, viruses and parasites that can cause life-threatening illnesses. So scientists have created different techniques for purifying water to make it safe to drink. Some involve filters that trap microbes and chemical contaminants. One, called LifeStraw, contains a carbon-based filter that cleans water as it moves through a straw. Similar filters, such as Liquidity and Lifesaver, contain high-tech materials to purify water quickly and effectively. Though these filters are effective and don't require any power to operate, they often cost a bit more up front and eventually need to be replaced. Some are also not designed to be used in large volumes, as would be needed for things like cooking.Other researchers are working on devices that can clean water with ultraviolet light. Researchers from Stanford University created a solar panel about the size of a piece of gum that cleans water with UV light, though it hasn't yet been tested in real-world settings. And another lunchbox-sized device called Ellie disinfects using LED lights. Though they are currently marketing Ellie to clean baby bottles on crowdfunding site Indiegogo, its creators hope to use Ellie to clean water in the places that need it most as they grow their company over the next few years. These technologies are less developed than filters and may require electricity, but they disinfect quickly and could make a big difference to people living without clean water if and when they are mass produced.Each of these innovations might seem like only a small step towards solving the crisis of clean water. But they can make all the difference to people who benefit from such innovations. And to hear philanthropists tell it, it's not such a far-fetched goal. According to a charity: water blog post: "We can solve the water crisis in our lifetime. We know how! But we can't do it alone."

Tech-Treated Clean Water is Good Enough to Drink

If the idea of body composting makes you squeamish, you're not alone. We don't like to think about death, especially when it comes to the physical aspect of what happens to our bodies after we die. But burial and cremation, our standard methods of disposing of human remains, aren't great for the environment.  Enter the sustainable death movement. People are searching for ways to dispose of bodies with respect and dignity — without harming the planet in the process.  Ashes to Ashes, Dust to Dust  While we may be more familiar with traditional funeral practices, embalming and cremation are simply not environmentally friendly. These methods consume natural resources and pollute the Earth. According to Science, cemeteries take up about 500 square kilometers in the United States, while embalming consumes millions of liters of chemicals each year. Cremation is often seen as the less expensive and more environmentally friendly option, but the process consumes natural gas and produces greenhouse emissions.  In May 2020, Washington will become the first state to legalize natural organic reduction, in other words, body composting.  "With natural organic reduction, the process is so complete that you're just left with plain old soil" says Jamie Pedersen, the Washington state senator who sponsored the bill.  The bill also included another option called alkaline hydrolysis or resomation, which is a water-based method of reducing a body to dust. This method has been used in at least 19 other states since the 1990s and in some parts of the United Kingdom, according to The Guardian. In this method, a body is placed into a container of warm water with a base such as lye, and the liquid, heat and pressure reduce the body to dust.  Other earth-friendly options include more natural burials, such as skipping the embalming fluids and burying the body in a basic casket made from biodegradable materials. In 2019, actor Luke Perry's body was laid to rest wearing a special suit designed to aid in composting. The New Yorker reports that the burial suit was made of "mushrooms and other microorganisms that help decompose the body, transfer nutrients to plants, and neutralize toxins."  How Body Composting Works  Katrina Spade, the founder and C.E.O. of a Seattle-based startup called Recompose approached Pedersen about legalizing body composting. The process is designed to accelerate what naturally happens to bodies after we die, decomposition. By creating conditions that allow microorganisms to thrive, Recompose can turn a body into soil in 30 days.  "My main concern was, if you permit something different, that isn't what we've always done, do we have any assurance that there's no potential for spread of disease," Pedersen says.  He explains that a study at Washington State University (WSU) that was testing options for body composting concluded that "the body is reduced to soil that was indistinguishable from gardening soil with no possibility of transmission of disease."  The soil also meets safety standards set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for such contaminants as heavy metals, according to Science.  It turns out that body composting is so safe and efficient that it's a widely-accepted practice in agriculture.  "It's quite common across the whole country, and it's often the preferred recommendation for the industry," says Thomas Bass, a sustainable agriculture researcher and educator at Montana State University.  As part of his job, Bass advises farmers on what to do in the case of disease, such as bird flu. Often, he says, composting is the best option for pathogen reduction because the natural heat from microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi kill the virus during the decomposition process.  When farms deal with animal deaths, Bass says that burying the bodies is not ideal because this takes up precious land on the farm and delays the natural decomposition process.  "They don't break down once buried," he says. He adds, "[the body] sort of just becomes entombed in an environment without oxygen."  Bass co-authored a report on livestock mortality composting published by Montana State University. In the report, the authors explain that farmers can consider composting to be the practice of farming beneficial microorganisms. In agriculture, the process is simple. You need a nutrient source (the body), plus a little bit of nitrogen (from something green) and lots of carbon (from something bulky such as woodchips or cornstalks). Then, make sure to encourage oxygen flow by allowing proper airflow and turning the compost at certain intervals. Under these conditions, Bass explains, microorganisms reduce the waste material while giving off heat that raises the temperature to a range that is high enough to kill many pathogens.  "It's really about using these beneficial microbes to digest the nutrient-rich carcass down to fundamental elements and compounds," Bass explains. "It's 'ashes to ashes, dust to dust,' and you're accelerating it through the composting microbes."  According to WBUR, Recompose uses a similar process for human bodies. The body is placed into a container with a carbon- and a nitrogen-heavy mixture of wood chips, alfalfa, and straw. A fan system provides air to encourage microbial growth. Within a month, the body breaks down into two wheelbarrows full of soil.  Respectful Sustainable Death Practices  Is composting human bodies different from animals?  "The big reveal is, technically it is no different. It's just making sure that you would manage certain social-cultural expectations in the process," explains Bass.  Body composting may technically be an ideal way to dispose of a body, but translating this common agricultural practice to humans is more complicated. There are a variety of funeral traditions around the world, ranging from mummification to burial, cremation and more sustainable options. Now, natural organic reduction, also known as composting, is another option to consider.  Pedersen says, "It's an intensely personal issue that gets to the core of what it means to be a human being."  Whether the end result is a box containing an embalmed body, an urn of ashes or a wheelbarrow of soil, loved ones can honor the deceased person in different ways. Pedersen says that during the legalization process, the most compelling testimony came from the friend of a terminal cancer patient who had volunteered to be part of the body composting study at WSU.  "She was a huge environmentalist and she was just tortured by the idea that her final act on the earth was either going to have to be being buried with all these chemicals and then permanently taking up a place on earth or being cremated and using all of this energy to burn up her remains," says Pedersen.  He says that the woman's friend explained that it was a huge psychological comfort for her to know that by participating in the study, she was helping to pave the path for other people to follow sustainable death practices.  "Family and friends spread her soil out in her garden with all her flowers and it was, for them, a really beautiful sort of circle," Pedersen says. "She was literally becoming a part of the plants that she loved."  

Body Composting Is the Newest Sustainable Death Practice

In April 2021, U.S. President Joe Biden set a national goal of creating a completely carbon-free electric power grid by 2035. Reaching that goal, however, will require massive use of renewables — including wind, solar, and hydroelectric power — and getting that clean energy from where it is generated to where it is needed, day or night, anywhere in the U.S. Delivering that clean energy will also require a significant expansion of the nation's transmission capabilities, perhaps doubling or tripling our current capacity, notes nonprofit Energy Systems Integration Group. An Interstate "Highway" for Electricity Enter macrogrid, a concept for a national network of multi-regional, high-capacity, high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission lines that would connect the major sub-grids or interconnections that make up the national electric power grid. HVDC transmission lines would connect to existing or updated alternating current (AC) networks that distribute electricity within regions. Likened by some to a Federal Interstate Highway System for electricity, macrogrid first emerged as a concept circa 2016 in the writings of Dale Osborn, a transmission planning engineer and consulting advisor for regulatory and economic studies for the Midcontinent Independent System Operator. Fortifying the Grid "It's important to note that macrogrid is a network, not simply a connection from one point to another," notes Dr. Jim McCalley, an Anson Marston Distinguished Professor of Engineering and the Jack London Chair in Power Systems Engineering at Iowa State University (ISU) — a national authority on the macrogrid. "It would interconnect major load (electricity demand) centers with major sources of renewable energy, including wind, solar, hydroelectric power, even offshore wind." In addition to helping decarbonize the national grid, McCalley points out, a macrogrid would also add resilience, reliability and multiregional power and capacity-sharing capabilities to the grid. "With infrastructure, you sometimes have short- or medium-term events you didn't expect, such as the widespread, cold-weather-induced power outages in Texas in Feb 2021," he explains. "Macrogrid facilitates the strength of the grid and its ability to deal with these types of issues in a very positive fashion." Sharing of power generation capacity between regions, McCalley suggests, would also allow each part of the country to meet its annual peak power demand — the Midwest typically peaks in July or August, for example, while the Pacific Northwest peaks in winter or early summer — without having to invest in additional power generation infrastructure. Opening up the Seam According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DoE), the nation's power grid comprises three major sub-grids: the Western Interconnection, the Eastern Interconnection and the Texas interconnection (overseen by the Electric Reliability Council of Texas.) These grids are large — the eastern grid, with a total capacity of 1,460 MW, actually cross the so-called "Seam" between the two regions. The Seam follows a north-south, slightly meandering path from eastern Montana to the western edge of the Texas panhandle. In 2016, the DoE commissioned a two-year Interconnections Seam Study led by the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). The study, which included national lab, university and industry partners, quantified the benefits and costs of several options, including macrogrid, for transmitting power across the U.S. electric grid. A McCalley-led team from Iowa State supported the study by developing computer models for different ways that transmission capacity could evolve. Delivering Value, Managing Costs The Seam Study produced two major findings, explains Joshua Novacheck, an NREL electricity system research engineer and the technical lead on the study: "We concluded that there's a lot of economic value in being able to trade power between the Eastern and Western Interconnections, whether you're using macrogrid or some other transmission expansion approach," he says. "We also found that HVDC transmission across the Seam enables dynamic power trading among regions, which adds important diversity to the power options available to these regions." To explain interregional power trading, Novacheck suggests that California could share its peak (and less expensive) mid-afternoon solar power with East Coast consumers as they enter their early evening peak demand period. Similarly, less expensive wind energy generated in the Midwest in the mid-evening could be shared with West Coast consumers as they enter their early-evening high-demand period. "Cross-country power trading would be preferable," Novacheck advises, "to having communities rely on local but very expensive fossil-fuel-powered, greenhouse-gas-emitting power plants to fill gaps in power supplies." Some of these gaps could also be filled by hydroelectric power, he suggests. While most U.S. sources of such power have already been developed, hydropower remains an important part of the overall macrogrid equation, primarily as a backup to other renewable sources on calm or cloudy days. Leveraging Mature Technology According to McCalley, HVDC is the most mature, most desirable transmission technology to use for the macrogrid. "Today's HVDC lines can carry large amounts of current with little loss," he explains, "which makes them perfect for connecting renewable wind and solar resources — often located in remote parts of the country — to distant load centers." In addition, according to Rob Gramlich, founder and President of Grid Strategies LLC, the technology used in modern HVDC converter stations — the "on-ramps" and "off-ramps" of macrogrid that convert current back and forth between DC and AC — will help ensure a stable, reliable macrogrid. "The newest voltage-source converter technology can shift the magnitude and direction of power flowing through converter stations almost instantaneously, which will make it easier to control how much power enters or leaves the macrogrid network at any particular substation," says Gramlich. Rethinking Energy Policy Gramlich also notes that the road to the macrogrid is unfortunately anything but clear, even though it provides an opportunity to move large amounts of renewable energy quickly and inexpensively over long distances. "Our current electricity system and regulatory structure were not set up to handle an opportunity like macrogrid," he explains. "The 330 transmission owners in the country generally operate locally and are regulated locally or at the state level. It's only in recent years that the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) has come in to encourage more interregional transmission system planning." There is also the matter of macrogrid cost and who should pay for it. A network of transmission lines that crosses multiple states makes it difficult to pinpoint exactly who benefits and by how much, Gramlich observes. But just as the Federal Interstate Highway System allows consumers to travel freely as needed from east to west, north to south, etc., a macrogrid would benefit most consumers at one time or another. "There's a national interest in avoiding long-duration outages because we've seen how society can completely fall apart without electric power," he points out. "A robust macro grid is one of the best things we can do to avoid such outages. That benefit alone provides a good justification for taxpayer funding." Shifting the Paradigm A transition to macrogrid or other new types of interstate transmission networks will also require a culture shift of sorts, as Novacheck points out: "Many communities currently rely on a local nuclear energy or fossil-fuel-burning power plant to fill gaps in their renewable energy supplies on short notice," he says. "If we're suddenly talking about massive exchanges of energy between regions, that paradigm will have to change. It could cause communities to wonder if they can count on their neighbors to deliver the power needed to serve load reliably and cost effectively." Starting the Investment President Biden's Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) provides funding for much-needed transmission infrastructure, including a $2.5 billion revolving fund managed by the DoE to fund eligible projects. That funding is merely a down payment on what would eventually be needed to fund the macrogrid, notes Gramlich, but "it can help in the near term with specific projects, get them deployed and over the finish line." In the longer term, he believes, the DoE can help states and grid stakeholders plan and elevate everyone's vision toward a larger opportunity such as the macrogrid. The DoE plans to manage and fund IIJA-motivated transmission upgrade projects through its "Building a Better Grid" initiative launched in Jan. 2022. Looking to the Present In addition to IIJA commitments to transmission, McCalley sees other hopeful signs that the nation favors a larger-scale, macrogrid-like transmission network. "The transmission project for which I have seen the least resistance has been the SOO Green HVDC Link project, which is delivering wind power from Iowa to the Chicago area, all underground," he says. "They are burying their transmission lines along railroad rights of way." Burying transmission lines is more expensive than constructing overhead lines by a factor of about two, McCalley admits, but it often eliminates consumer resistance as well as the visual, land and environmental impacts of above-ground transmission lines. He's also excited about Power from the Prairie (PftP), a proposed 600-mile, 4,000 MW HVDC transmission line that would run from southeast Wyoming to northwest Iowa. It would be a critical leg of a two-way renewable energy superhighway connecting Southern California to Chicago and the PJM Interconnection grid that extends to the East Coast. McCalley believes that PftP could also serve as a demonstration or pathfinder project for how the macrogrid might one day be implemented. Solving the Puzzle Novacheck believes that HVDC transmission remains one of the most mature and cost-effective technologies for meeting national decarbonization goals. But for all of the resilience and reliability benefits it offers, it's still only part of a larger puzzle. "At NREL, we don't see a single solution to achieve a completely decarbonized power grid," he suggests. "A macrogrid alone is not going to do it, storage alone is not going to do it, renewables technology alone is not going to do it. It's really a system of potential solutions. By piecing these solutions together, however, we can help put the nation on the fastest, cheapest path to decarbonization." Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Macrogrid Could Help Connect US to a Clean Energy Future

Hydrogen — a colorless gas at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature — has suddenly gone green. And not only is it green, but it might also be a potential solution for our low-carbon future.No, you haven't missed a fundamental change in Earth's chemistry, and gases aren't really changing color. So then, what is green hydrogen exactly? Let's find out.Hydrogen: A Clean-Burning WonderfuelHydrogen is extremely abundant on the planet but not in its pure form. It's usually combined with other elements, such as oxygen or carbon, and presents as water (H2O) or methane (CH4). However, in its pure form, H2, it shows great potential as a clean-burning fuel that can help us build a low-carbon future.Used as fuel, hydrogen is considered a clean energy source and emits only water as a byproduct when used in fuel cells to generate electricity. This makes it extremely valuable in certain situations, like on space missions. It's also a great way to reduce the carbon load in heavy industries, such as heavy transport and aviation. By going green, hydrogen fuel doesn't emit harmful residues during its production or its use.A Rainbow of Hydrogen OptionsWhat is green hydrogen, though, if it's technically a clear gas? For starters, green is not the only "color" of hydrogen. The color coding refers to the way hydrogen is produced, giving an indication of how clean each manufacturing process is as described by the U.S. Energy Information Administration.Traditional production methods use coal (brown hydrogen) or natural gas methane or petroleum (gray hydrogen), with the energy used in the process coming from fossil fuels. This pumps out a lot of carbon dioxide as a waste product. By installing carbon capture into the process, the resulting hydrogen can be called blue, and there is less impact on greenhouse gas accumulation.Hydrogen can also be produced by splitting water during a process called electrolysis, and this is where green hydrogen comes from. An electrical current splits the hydrogen from the oxygen atoms. Other hydrogens in the spectrum include yellow hydrogen (using solar power) and pink hydrogen (powered by nuclear energy).The U.S. Department of Energy's Alternative Fuels Data Center notes a few more renewable methods under investigation. These include generating hydrogen photobiologically from algae as they consume water in the presence of sunlight, using renewable liquid fuels such as ethanol, and fermentation that acts on sugar-rich feedstocks such as biomass to release hydrogen.Why Is Green Hydrogen Better?Since hydrogen as a fuel is presented as an alternative to replace fossil fuels, both its use and production should aim to reduce carbon dioxide emissions as much as possible. Most hydrogen production in the U.S. comes from steam treatment to reform methane gas (steam-methane reforming). Currently, making hydrogen is responsible for more than 2% of global carbon dioxide emissions. With a predicted rise in energy requirements of 25% to 30% by 2040, low-carbon alternatives are definitely needed.Using the color-coding designations for hydrogen, green is a good way forward since it doesn't contribute to global warming by way of carbon emissions. This is achieved by switching the source of the energy required to generate the electrolysis reaction from fossil fuels. Instead, this hydrogen uses renewable energy sources to power the conversion, which means there are no carbon emissions to deal with, and water is the only byproduct.What's Holding It Back?Electrolytic conversion using renewable energy to abolish carbon emissions seems like a simple solution. However, there are a number of obstacles researchers need to overcome before this method of production is adopted widely.Cost is one major barrier. Electrolysis is an energy-hungry process. This pushes up the cost of the hydrogen produced beyond what's affordable for subsequent energy generation, and to be a realistic replacement for fossil fuels, it needs to be affordable.Harvesting the hydrogen produced from electrolysis is relatively straightforward, but there are issues around its volatility and, therefore, its safety in handling. Hydrogen as a liquid needs to be stored under pressure for delivery and transportation. Work at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory describes how something as simple as the fuel delivery hose has to undergo extensive testing. Simulating the device in use allows researchers to learn more about flexibility, entanglement and other issues that could compromise safety and delivery.The Alternative Fuels Data Center also notes that the current infrastructure presents limitations. Most hydrogen is produced near where it is used. Adoption more widely — such as for fuel cells in cars — requires a wider distribution network. This means either pipeline development or expanding a fleet of distribution tankers. Because hydrogen rapidly becomes a gas when pressure and temperature reduce, supply must be closely matched with demand so tanks of the liquefied product don't simply evaporate before use.Though there are finer points in production and supply that need to be addressed, in the future, alternative fuel sources for our planet will probably include green hydrogen, and perhaps the yellow and pink varieties, too.Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Green Hydrogen Explained: How It Can Help Reduce Emissions

What if we could use the energy stored in electric vehicles (EVs) to supplement power on the national grid when local sources of renewable energy like solar and wind become unavailable? Or to help commercial buildings reduce their demand for electricity from fossil-fuel-burning power plants? Or even to power a commercial building following a public safety power shutoff by the local utility? Actually, that day is already here for an increasing number of owners of fleets of electric-powered vehicles including cars, vans, school buses, and light- and heavy-duty vehicles. Unfortunately, most U.S. consumers do not currently have easy access to this vehicle-to-grid (V2G) integration process. But the good news is that costs are coming down, state energy commissions are focused on shaping relevant power-sharing standards, and increasing numbers of auto original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and EV charging station manufacturers are planning how best to incorporate V2G capabilities into current or future models. Driving in a One-Way World Today, most electric EVs and EV charging stations in the U.S. are set up for unidirectional (one-way) charging: Power flows only from the charging station to the battery of the vehicle. Some vehicles, such as the 2021 Ford F-150 Hybrid pickup, feature multiple 120-volt power outlets in the bed of the truck for powering tools and small appliances. And many utilities offer incentive programs to EV owners to use "smart charging" (V1G) technologies to automatically charge their cars during off-peak hours when electricity rates are lowest. But neither of these approaches allows power from an EV's battery to be shared with the electric grid. V2G at a Glance V2G operations require two things: an automobile with bidirectional charging capabilities (one that can both charge and discharge its battery) and an EV charging station that can both charge car batteries and send power back to the grid. The only consumer car currently available in the U.S. with bidirectional charging is the Nissan Leaf. Other auto manufacturers such as Mitsubishi, Toyota and Volkswagen are building models with bidirectional charging, but none that are available for purchase in the U.S. V2G chargers come in two varieties: AC (alternating current) and DC (direct current). An AC V2G charger — the less expensive of the two — supplies AC power from the grid to the EV, which converts that power to DC using an onboard converter, then sends the DC power to its battery. Upon discharge, the EV pulls DC power from its battery, converts the DC back to AC using an onboard inverter, then returns the AC power to the charging station, which delivers the power to the grid. By contrast, a DC V2G charging station converts grid-supplied AC power to DC, then sends it directly to the EV's battery. Upon discharge, DC power flows from the battery back to the charging station where an inverter changes the DC power back to AC, which then flows back to the grid. Changing the Rules In the U.S., energy "aggregators" such as San Diego-based Nuvve work with owners of fleets of medium to large electric vehicles to participate in the V2G power-sharing market. Nuvve uses proprietary software to control via the Internet the times and rates at which V2G charging stations charge fleet vehicles or deliver power from those vehicles back to the grid. The V2G software allows vehicles to be charged when demand for (and cost of) electricity is lowest. "We're able to directly access the controls of the vehicles and the charging stations and control that rate of charge," explained Marc Trahand, Nuvve's executive vice president of marketing. "With our software, we can combine the power from batteries from all of these vehicles on a regional basis, creating what we call a virtual power plant, or one big virtual battery." That aggregated level of energy, he continued, is a source of high value to fleet owners. "With our virtual power plant, we can sell energy to local or system-level energy markets and share that value with the owners of the batteries," said Trahand. Buffering Reality Increasingly, energy stored in EV batteries is being sold into energy markets to help compensate for second-to-second power fluctuations that occur because the grid is being powered increasingly by renewable energy. "Solar and wind power have natural, built-in-variability, so when you use them to replace the power from a stable, natural gas-burning power plant, you get minor disturbances on the grid," Trahand explained. "We can smooth out those disturbances with energy storage, and V2G is a perfect way to provide that extra storage." He added that V2G can also become a valuable grid ally in states such as California that generate immense amounts of renewable energy during the day but then have to rely on other, often "dirty" greenhouse-gas-producing sources of power to meet the spike in demand when consumers come home and start turning on their appliances. "With V2G, we can charge cars during the day using clean solar energy, then push any energy left in the EVs back into homes to help minimize the demand peak in the evening," explained Trahand. "By charging these cars late at night, after the peak load is gone, we can help EV owners make optimum use of their car batteries." Easing Peak Demand Another application for storing and managing EV energy with V2G is called vehicle-to-building, or V2B. "Once we've got control of a battery, there are lots of things we can do with its power," Trahand noted, "including sending it back to a building." Depending on the size of the building and number of EV batteries available, he continued, V2G could be used to minimize a building's peak energy demands or minimize its "time of use" energy charges. Putting Fleets to Work Nuvve is working to mature and speed the deployment of V2G technology by partnering with OEMs of electric school buses, such as Lion Electric in Quebec, Canada, and Blue Bird Corporation in Fort Valley, Georgia. The goal is to include bidirectional charging and V2G compatibility in as many new electric school buses as possible. Electric school buses are an ideal application of V2G because the vehicles spend just a few hours per day delivering students to or from school and the rest of the day waiting in a school bus yard. This midday waiting period is ideal for charging the buses, storing energy or sharing energy with the grid. However, Trahand is quick to point out that the company's grid integration software will never leave a vehicle with insufficient power to perform its transportation duties. "We know the drive patterns of each bus, we know how much energy should be in that bus before it's time to drive out of the yard," he emphasized. "Having sufficient charge for a vehicle's daily driving duties is our number one priority." Educating the Regulators V2G research and development is also taking place at the other end of the educational spectrum, thanks to grants provided by the California Energy Commission (CEC). "We want our policies to send the right signals to the marketplace to encourage smart use of the grid," suggested California Energy Commissioner Patty Monahan. "We'd like to see charging happening at times of the day that are optimal for the grid. We think that aggregators, with their work in the medium- and heavy-duty electrification space, will play an important role in shaping the behavior and performance of that future grid." In 2017, CEC provided a $4.2 million grant to help fund a three-year demonstration of V2G chargers on the UC San Diego campus. Under the Intelligent Electric Vehicle Integration (INVENT) program, 50 owners of EVs drove their cars normally during the day but then connected to V2G chargers at night to demonstrate how the energy from their EV batteries could be shared with the grid with positive effects without hindering the day-to-day operation of the vehicle. In Trahand's perfect future, fleets of Amazon, UPS and FedEx trucks would also be electrified and connected to V2G networks — thereby reducing the release of greenhouse gases in metropolitan areas while adding resilience and stability to the grid. Bringing the Future Closer And while prospects for consumer-sized, consumer-priced V2G technology remain limited in the near term, the world is definitely changing. "Until now, the V2G chargers we've been using have been the size of a refrigerator," explained Trahand, "and no one wants that in their driveway." The next generation of chargers, he believes, will be much smaller, wall-mounted boxes that would allow consumers to start participating in the V2G market. And regulators' understanding of the technology and where it fits on the spectrum of grid operations is continuing to evolve. Trahand equates V2G technology today to the early days of cell phones "where phones were big and you needed a suitcase for your battery." "Bit by bit, this technology is getting better, it's getting smaller, and it will eventually be integrated inside every electric vehicle," he said. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

How Electric Vehicles Can Add Stability to a Renewable Energy Grid

Every time we use our cell phone or personal computer to query the internet, stream a movie or retrieve photos from the cloud, we're asking a worldwide network of high-speed computers to locate and deliver data instantly to our device.  Unfortunately, the digital infrastructure that performs these tasks — thousands of computers housed in data centers (aka server "farms") — also consumes enormous amounts of electricity, much of it from non-renewable sources. To shrink this carbon footprint and create a more sustainable future, large data center owners including Amazon, Facebook and Google are creating green data centers.  How Data Centers Work  A modern data center typically houses thousands of powerful and very small computer servers networked together. This network collects, stores, processes, distributes and allows access to large amounts of data. If you have personal data "in the cloud," that data is actually stored on a physical computer disk drive in one of these data centers.  A metric commonly used to measure the energy efficiency of a data center is called its power usage effectiveness (PUE), a ratio of its total power consumption divided by the amount of power consumed by its computing infrastructure. PUE was developed by the Green Grid, a consortium of policymakers, technology providers, facility architects and utility companies dedicated to improving IT and data center efficiency.  In a perfect world, PUE would be 1.0, meaning that all of the power consumed by a data center is being used to power its servers. In reality, however, a data center must also provide power to cool its computers, and maintain other aspects of its infrastructure such as facility lighting, heating and cooling. According to the Uptime Institute, the average PUE for data centers in 2019 was 1.67. In recent years, Facebook and other large data center operators have reported PUEs as low as 1.1.  How to Reduce Energy Consumption  Companies intent on lowering their carbon footprint usually have two major energy goals for their green data centers: (1) reduce the total energy usage of the centers, and (2) increase the amount of renewable energy used by those facilities.  Total energy usage for a data center includes energy consumed by servers and by facility overhead functions such as heating and cooling.  Google has turned to machine learning to help reduce the total amount of energy used to power its data centers. In 2016, a company efficiency expert named Jim Gao teamed up with Google's artificial intelligence (AI) research group, Deep Mind, to develop an algorithm that could optimize the use of energy at various data centers. The algorithm used historical data from data center sensors — temperature, pump speeds power, setpoints, etc. — to train a collection of deep neural networks to predict the appropriate future temperature and pressure conditions for each facility.  Google claims that its AI algorithm has produced a "40 percent reduction in the amount of energy used for cooling and 15 percent reduction in overall energy overhead."  The Department of Energy also recommends several steps data center operators can take to reduce energy consumption by their facilities. These suggestions include:    Server virtualization (using one physical server to conduct the workload of multiple virtual servers)  Decommissioning unused servers  Consolidation of lightly used servers  Better management of data storage (which reduces the number of servers needed)  Purchasing more energy-efficient servers and other power equipment   Shrinking Water Use  A sustainable future for green data centers also relies on optimizing the use of water involved in creating proper temperature- and humidity-controlled environments for servers.  Historically, data centers have used air- or water-cooled chillers to create the cool air that circulates among racks of servers. This approach, however, is very power- and water-intensive. Chillers, for example, rely on refrigerant and electricity-hungry compressors to create a supply of cool water. A computer room air handling system blows warm air over coils filled with this water, cooling the air to the desired temperature. The heat transferred by the air to the chilled water is ultimately released to the external environment via one or more cooling towers.  By contrast, Facebook uses a more water- and power-efficient approach called evaporative cooling to cool many of its data centers. Evaporative cooling blows fresh, outside air through a water-soaked membrane. The incoming air warms the water in the membrane, turning it into vapor. This transfer of energy cools and humidifies the incoming air, which is then directed to the data center's air handling system. Facebook claims that evaporative cooling techniques allow its data centers to use about 50% less water than a typical data center.  In more severe environments — locations where the incoming air could introduce high levels of dust, extreme humidity or high levels of salinity, all of which could contaminate the server environment — Facebook uses a more water-intensive air-cooling process called StatePoint Liquid Cooling to maintain its data centers at the optimum temperature.  Sticking With Recycling  Not all data center operators are as advanced in their efforts to drive down PUE as Facebook. Companies such as Evoque Data Center Solutions, which acquired AT&T's portfolio of data centers in 2019, however, are still conscientious about their use of water to cool their data centers.  "Many of our data centers, which rely on water-cooled chillers, are using gray water as part of the mix of water used in their cooling towers," said John Diamond, Evoque's vice president of engineering. "We've also engaged a national chemical treatment contractor to help us maximize the number of times we can cycle water through the cooling towers before flushing its chemicals out of the system."  Water used in cooling towers, he explained, must be periodically treated with chemicals to keep it free of biological and chemical contaminants that could foul cooling tower equipment.  Expanding Access to Renewables  Of course, a PUE of 1.0 can still be damaging to the planet if the power being consumed by server farms is not coming from renewable sources.  Unfortunately, the large energy demands of a typical data center usually make it impractical for its operators to maintain on-site renewable energy farms (wind or solar). And historically, the federal regulatory environment has made it difficult for companies to purchase renewable energy directly from their local utility company.  One way to overcome this regulatory problem is for operators of green data centers to purchase renewable energy at the wholesale level in the same electric grid where a data center resides. The power is then sold back into the local grid in exchange for renewable energy credits. The use of these credits adds renewable energy to the local grid while reducing the carbon footprint of data centers.  Another way to bring more renewable energy to green data centers is through an emerging concept called green energy tariffs. Offered by local utility companies, green tariffs allow a company such as Facebook or Google to effectively invest in a new renewable energy project by agreeing to purchase energy at a specified rate for a specified amount of time. In return, the local utility can direct electricity output from that new wind or solar facility to one or more of its local customers.  Matching Energy Demands  It's important to point out that green data centers will likely never be powered exclusively by renewable energy. Their high energy consumption and 24/7 workload demand that they stay connected to local, reliable sources of power, whether that power comes from renewable energy sources or not.  In this context, Google claims to have matched 100% of its annual electricity consumption in 2017 and 2018 with purchases of renewable energy. Similarly, Facebook claims that 75% of its power purchases came from renewable sources in 2018 and that it expects that number to reach 100% in 2020, largely by continuing to invest in renewable energy projects located on the same electric grid as its data centers.  Amazon Web Services also claims that more than 50% of its operations were powered by renewable sources of energy in 2018. The company expects to reach 100% renewable energy sources within several years.  Building in Sustainability  Another less discussed aspect of green data centers, but one that goes to the heart of creating a sustainable future concerns the purchase, utilization and disposal of server hardware. Data centers can house as many as 80,000 servers, each with an average lifespan of three to five years.  Given this math, there are incentives to minimize the amount of non-renewable materials used to produce hardware and to maximize opportunities to recycle or refurbish that hardware when it reaches the end of its useful life within the data center environment.  Facebook takes a holistic approach to reduce the amount of non-renewable, petroleum-based plastics used to produce its computer servers. For example, the company identified a material called natural fiber-filled polypropylene (NFFPP), a plastic composite material manufactured in part from natural, renewable jute fibers, that could be used to produce many small components used in server manufacturing such as cable clips and bus bar covers. The company is also conscientious about how it reuses, recycles and remarkets its servers and server components.  Facing Down Climate Change  As society's demand for data and the forces of climate change continue to grow, so too will the demand for green data centers and their focus on a sustainable future. It may or may not be too late to avoid a showdown with climate change, but every owner of a digital device and every operator of a data center still has the opportunity to make a difference in the fight.  If you'd like to see how green your future could be working for one of the world's great technology companies, please contact us at https://www.northropgrumman.com/careers/.  

Green Data Centers Power a More Sustainable Planet

In September 2017, Hurricane Maria, a Category 4 storm packing sustained winds of 155 miles per hour, took direct aim at Puerto Rico. Ranking as the worst natural disaster to ever hit the island, the hurricane devastated Puerto Rico's electrical grid and left most of its residents without power for more than six months, according to the U.S. Department of Energy. Today, the Environmental Defense Fund reports that Puerto Rico has largely restored its grid using a smarter, more resilient approach: microgrids. Recovery of the island's power grid is just one in a growing number of microgrid applications by communities who want to ensure a future with greener, more affordable and more reliable sources of electricity. Microgrids are also becoming increasingly central to sustainability efforts undertaken by universities, industrial organizations and cities to combat climate change. Building a Safety Net The U.S. Department of Energy defines a microgrid as a localized electric grid that can disconnect from the traditional electric grid and operate autonomously in the event of a power outage. Microgrids typically include multiple energy resources that support critical, interconnected power loads within a building, campus or community. These resources may include diesel-powered generators, renewable energy installations (solar or wind), transmission lines and battery-based energy storage systems. Most microgrids are designed to back up or complement the local electric grid. "Think of a microgrid as a safety net," said Peter Shattuck, a renewable energy expert with Anbaric Development Partners who has helped customers update their microgrids to meet new climate change goals. "As your dependence on electricity to power critical functions increases, so does your need for a safety net." He notes that microgrids, by continuing to operate when the main grid is down, add reliability and resilience to the main grid. They can also help to reduce energy costs for their owners. When demand (and electric rates) are low, microgrids can draw power from the local grid. When the local grid is experiencing high demand and rates are high, microgrids can draw power from their own resources at lower rates or even send power back to the main grid. By drawing on these "local" sources of power, utilities can also reduce their need to build out expensive transmission infrastructures. Powering Sustainability Traditionally, microgrids have been used by college campuses, hospitals, military installations and other organizations that cannot afford to be without power. However, microgrid applications today are increasingly motivated by sustainability efforts at the local, city and state levels, both domestically and internationally. The University of California San Diego microgrid project, for example, provides electricity, heating and cooling to a campus with a daily population of 45,000 individuals. It uses gas turbines, a steam turbine and a solar energy installation to meet 85 percent of the campus' electricity needs and 95 percent of its heating and cooling needs. In the remote Andes Mountains community of Huatacondo lies Chile's first microgrid, developed by the University <a target="_blank" href="https://buildingof Chile. The microgrid developers are adding distributed energy resources, such as solar energy, wind, and battery storage systems, to the village's existing diesel-powered generator. In recent years, Huatacondo's consumption of diesel fuel has dropped by 50 percent while it has become increasingly energy-independent through its renewable energy resources. Keeping the Lights On Faced with a growing threat of wildfires exacerbated by climate change, some utilities, such as San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E), have developed plans to install battery-based microgrids to power community emergency services in the event of wildfires or other extreme weather events. "Our goal is to ensure that our customers continue to have access to electricity and other essential services when their power is disrupted, either because of wildfires or public safety power shutoffs by the local utility," explained Tom Bialek, chief engineer for Sempra Energy, the parent company to SDG&E. To date, according to Green Tech Media, the utility has proposed seven of these community microgrids in the greater San Diego area. Collectively, they would provide 100 megawatts of backup power for emergency infrastructure, such as fire stations, law enforcement offices, emergency operations centers and community shelters. Repurposing What Works According to Bialek, the new San Diego microgrids will be created from a combination of new and existing resources, depending on what's already available in each community. Every microgrid will need a source of power generation, a primary load to serve and control systems that allow it to "island" (run autonomously). "If a community fire station already has a large solar photovoltaic array, for example, we would likely add some energy storage, size those resources to match critical emergency loads, then add an appropriate control system to manage it," said Bialek. He added that San Diego's new microgrids will also benefit from "smart" optimization software that comes standard with most control systems. "Traditional microgrids have been connected to the main grid by a single switch, so your resources were either 'all on' or 'all off,'" explained Bialek. "Optimization software allows you to selectively power certain loads but not others within your microgrid, so you can make more efficient use of limited power resources for an extended period of time." Green Partnerships Bialek has no doubt that microgrids will continue to proliferate and play a central role in the sustainability efforts of communities across the nation. He views their owners as key partners to utility companies in maintaining a safe, reliable and sustainable electrical grid. "Our customers help us create greener, more sustainable communities through their use of rooftop solar and other renewable energy sources," he said. "In return, we provide and maintain the underlying energy infrastructure and resources that allow them to be successful." If you'd like to guarantee a sustainable future for your career, check out the latest opportunities at careers.northropgrumman.com.

Microgrids Offer Communities Bridge to Sustainable Future

A humble bacterium discovered in river mud is actually an energy harvesting dynamo. New research shows that protein filaments from a microbe called Geobacter sulfurrenducens can be made into a paper-thin device that pulls electricity from humid air. This innovative renewable energy, which came about serendipitously in the lab, works in air of normal ambient humidity (about 40% to 50% relative humidity), but also works in air as dry as the Sahara Desert's or as humid as Florida's. "We found a way to continuously produce electricity from the ambient environment — anywhere, anytime," says electrical engineer Jun Yao, an assistant professor at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In laboratory experiments, Yao and his team linked 17 energy harvesting films together to generate 10 volts of electricity, which is enough to power a cellphone. He says that because humidity is ubiquitous, this renewable energy solution can produce electricity day and night, no matter the environmental conditions. It can also be stacked vertically to take up less space than solar panels, for instance. He and his team published their research in February 2020 in the journal Nature. Based on the energy density in a thin film, Yao estimates that a multi-layered device the size of a refrigerator could power an average home, provided that the environment has the right humidity. He envisions stacks turned into a variety of shapes ranging from artistic and futuristic to those that blend seamlessly with the natural environment. "The potential is endless," he says. Accidental Discovery Yao and his team didn't set out to invent a renewable energy device. It happened by chance after a university colleague, microbiologist Derek Lovley, introduced Yao to the Geobacter microbe and described how it grew tiny wires made of protein in order to transfer charges to other microbes. When Lovley showed Yao images of the protein nanowires, Yao says he was amazed by the bacterium. "I didn't know it existed or that it was conductive," he says. As an electrical engineer, Yao figured that an obvious use for protein nanowires was to turn them into a wearable health sensor that could, for instance, monitor a person's respiratory rate or their skin hydration or detect how well a wound was healing. Yao enlisted first-year graduate student at the time, Xiaomeng Liu, to test the feasibility of such a device by sandwiching a thin film of the nanowires between two electrodes plugged into an electrical outlet and then measure how much charge the nanowires conducted. By accident, Liu forgot to plug the device in one day but noticed that the device was still getting power and could recharge itself. After conducting some investigations and ruling out a handful of explanation, the scientists discovered that when they put the protein nanowire device in a chamber and lowered the humidity, the current decreased. After exposing the energy harvesting device to different levels of humidity, the team found that it worked in a wide range of humidity from different geographical environments. As long as part of the film is exposed to the air and can absorb moisture, a moisture gradient develops, with water molecules constantly diffusing in and out of the top. At that spot, charges begin to build up. The difference in charge between the top and bottom of the film causes electrons to flow, Yao told Science. His colleague Derek Lovley suggested he name the device Air Gen. Making More Calculations showed that they could increase energy harvesting by putting more devices together, just like connecting many solar panels together in solar cells. To do this, they needed more protein nanowires from the bacteria. But growing massive amounts of Geobacter microbes in order to harvest their nanowires is difficult. These bacteria live in environments that have little to no oxygen and so culturing lots of them in a lab requires an expensive chamber that can create anaerobic conditions. Lovley, who had discovered the microbes, found that he could genetically engineer the easy-to-grow bacterium Escherichia coli to produce protein nanowires that have the same diameter and conducting power as Geobacter's. They're also just as durable. Yao says that the organic protein nanowire is more robust than those made of inorganic substances like silicon. Lovley conducted experiments showing that the nanowires remain stable in harsh solutions ranging from vinegar to saltwater, which quickly corrodes metal. "That's attractive in terms of practical implementation," says Yao. He says that the device could be shaped into interesting forms, too, to give off the appearance of art or even merge with the natural surroundings. Imagine a power plant that, at first glance, looks like a tree orchard, for instance. Many questions remain about the protein nanowires, says Yao. Some of them are around the fundamental mechanisms and why they conduct as they do. No one really knows for sure. Other questions have to do with the efficiency of this new green technology and discovering its upper limits. But that's where Yao thrives. "From a research perspective, it's good because we want to continue to investigate this," says Yao.

Energy Harvesting Tech Pulls Electricity From the Air

There are four million miles of roads stretching across America, per the American Road and Transportation Builders Association (ARTBA). That means sustainable construction could make a big impact on the environment. But only a small fraction of our roads are handled by the federal government, leaving state and local governments responsible for managing roads with limited budgets. They need to choose a material that is inexpensive, simple to build with and easy to repair. This is why asphalt, the ubiquitous pavement made from a sticky petroleum-based material, is used so frequently. But how can we move toward a sustainable plan for the future of roads and the health of our planet? Understanding How Roads are Constructed Traditionally paved roads are made of layers of sandy material capped with a surface layer of pavement. Author Sid Perkins explains in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) that the top layer, called asphalt pavement, is a mixture of gravel, sand and other fillers that are stuck together with a black sticky petroleum byproduct. Asphalt is flexible, so the pressure of vehicles can create dips and subtle dimples in the road over time. Plus, the natural expansion and contraction of groundwater below the road often gives way to cracks and seasonal potholes. Transportation crews are constantly working in a cycle of repairing and resurfacing roads, with 19.4% of our highways in need of repairs, according to the ARTBA. Other more durable materials, such as concrete pavement, are too expensive upfront. Perkins explains that departments of transportation make construction decisions based on short-term costs without factoring in the cost of maintaining roads made of flexible materials. Environmental Impacts of Traditional Roads There has been plenty of attention on vehicles and their impact on the environment. Stricter vehicle emission standards and an uptick in electric and hybrid vehicles have helped to reduce automotive pollution. Now that those numbers have improved, it's easier to see that the roads themselves are part of the problem. The process of creating asphalt involves heating bitumen, a form of petroleum, to make it soft and sticky. Asphalt production is one of the biggest energy-consuming industries, according to World Highways. Not only that, but the heat and carbon dioxide emitted during production can be harmful to the environment. Softer roads are also bad for fuel efficiency, especially as they continue to sag over time. Although road dips and dimples may appear subtle, they require vehicles to expend more energy to climb out of them, decreasing fuel efficiency and increasing carbon emissions. Per Hedges & Company, with 289.5 million registered vehicles in the United States projected in 2021, small dips in fuel efficiency quickly add up. And for tractor-trailer trucks that transport heavy goods, the dips are even more severe. The dark asphalt itself also absorbs heat from sunlight and then emits fumes that contribute to fog, especially when it heats up on sunny days. PNAS reports that road surfaces may release more organic compounds than vehicles. Alternative Composition and Production So, what happens when all that cracked, old pavement gets replaced? The good news is that 200 million tons of old pavement are recycled each year, with much of it being reused in the new roads, according to ARTBA. This is a decent start, but there are more improvements in the works. The switch to more sustainable construction doesn't have to be an all-or-nothing approach. Instead, we can make incremental improvements. An alternative method of production called warm-mix asphalt can be produced at a lower temperature than traditional pavement, which helps to minimize the energy and fumes. Plus, we can mix different aggregates and binders. PNAS explains that researchers are considering replacing some of the traditional asphalt ingredients with:   Basalt  Glass  Plastic bags  Gravel and sand from wastewater  Incorporating these materials into the mix could help to reduce the use of natural resources, such as limestone, and keep waste out of landfills. Aside from recycled materials, researchers are also investigating the use of lighter-colored materials. This would help to minimize the absorption of heat from the sun — which could help to reduce urban "heat islands" caused by pavement — and reduce emissions from the road materials themselves. Pavement doesn't have to be so soft. PNAS reports that stiffer pavement could cut "dimple" related emissions by 18% over 50 years. Some municipalities are already starting to incorporate porous (also called pervious) concrete, which allows stormwater to filter through the pavement instead of running off along the sides of the road. This could:   Increase road safety, because roads are not as wet and slippery  Reduce the need for road salt, which gets into groundwater  Filter out pollutants that contribute to pollution in water  Future of Roads As we brainstorm better solutions to repair and improve our roads, we can also look beyond the pavement. Some researchers are working on ways to make roads do double duty by incorporating energy into the roads themselves. In the future, instead of stopping at a gas station to fuel up, drivers could charge their vehicles while they drive. For example, World Highways describes roads in the Netherlands that generate solar power via glass-covered photovoltaic cells. Meanwhile, researchers in Israel are developing a piezoelectric energy road, which uses the vibrations of vehicles driving along the road to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, according to Business Insider. With this technology, electric coils installed under roads can transmit energy to electric vehicles, so they can charge as they go without the need for electric vehicle charging stations. Potential Roadblocks Clearly, there are many ways to consider more sustainable construction for the future of roads. The immediate barrier is that transportation infrastructure is currently based on short-term costs, and regular asphalt is the widespread, cheap and easy solution. But new methods could also lead to a whole new set of problems. Different aggregates or binders could create new aerosols that could pollute the air. Plus, as PNAS points out, reflective coatings could create a glare that could distract drivers. More research is needed, but with so many roads connecting our widespread country, even small steps toward sustainable construction could help to protect the environment.

Sustainable Construction for the Future of Roads

In 2019, solar power accounted for nearly 15 percent of the renewable energy generated in the U.S., according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration. The Center for Climate and Energy Solutions expects that figure to grow to 48 percent by 2050. This trend is driven in part by states' growing commitment to fighting climate change by transitioning from fossil-fueled power to renewable forms of energy. As a result, independent system operators (ISO) of the national power grid are becoming increasingly reliant on solar forecasting tools to help maintain a reliable, balanced and economically efficient grid. "Having an accurate sense of what solar panels are going to be producing helps us ensure that we have enough electricity on hand to meet our power demands," said Matthew Kakley, a spokesman for ISO-New England. "It also helps us create the energy forecast that we use to maintain a stable wholesale market for power buyers and sellers, and ensure that we're getting the electricity that consumers need at efficient and competitive prices." Solar forecasts — most of which are produced by commercial vendors — are also used by energy traders, and operators of large solar plants to manage operations or to schedule maintenance. Typical power sellers include energy producers such as power plants or solar farms. Typical buyers include local utility companies that distribute power to consumers. Forecasting the Future According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), in Golden, Colorado, there are two basic approaches to solar forecasting:   Physical methods, which use numerical weather prediction (NWP) models to forecast solar irradiance — solar energy per unit area falling on a horizontal surface — in a particular region. Irradiance data is used to predict the power output from solar photovoltaic cells; and ...     Statistical methods, which use historic and real-time generation data to correct results derived from NWP models, or to produce short-term forecasts.  Gathering the Data Irradiance data, explained Bri-Mathias Hodge, chief scientist for the NREL's Power Systems Engineering Center, is typically collected either terrestrially using an instrument called a pyranometer, or from space by satellites such as NASA's family of GOES-R environmental sensing satellites. "Irradiance has two components: direct normal irradiance such as sunlight shining directly on a solar cell, and diffuse irradiance, which is sunlight that's been reflected off clouds and particles in the atmosphere," Hodge said. Among other things, Hodge added, the geostationary GOES-R satellites can identify the types of clouds present, how they're distributed in the sky, how much shadow they're creating over solar farms and where they'll move next. The satellites' focus on short-term phenomena makes this data most valuable for predicting solar energy production within, say, the next four hours. Adding Magic to Experience According to Hodge, most solar forecasts used in the U.S., are based on weather prediction models — with a little bit of experience and "secret sauce" added in by forecast vendors. "Grid operators typically use what we call a deterministic or point forecasts to predict solar output at a given location at a given time, for example, 50 Megawatts of power at 1 p.m.," Hodge said. "If I'm forecasting a day ahead, I would use NWP model output like NOAA produces, then adjust that data based on local weather information and the history of how accurate it's been. For an hour-ahead forecast, I'd rely more on a statistical or machine-learning approach." And, like weather reports, Hodge added, the accuracy of solar forecasts tends to follow an exponential decay curve. "Once you go past four hours, the most reliable models will be the NWP variety," he said. "If you're looking at the weekend or a week ahead, you would still use an NWP model, but the accuracy of a week ahead is much less than it would be for say, a day-ahead forecast." Improving the Odds To make solar forecasting more reliable for national power grid operators, Hodge advises, the solar industry is now moving toward using more probabilistic forecasts. "There will always be weather-related uncertainties associated with even the most robust solar power point forecasts," he said. "A probabilistic forecast is better at quantifying these uncertainties and the degree of risk associated with a given forecast, in the same way that a weather forecast might say there is a 10 percent chance of rain today." Measuring Invisible Power In some parts of the country, such as New England, much of the solar power being consumed is not readily visible to or controlled by grid operators. This "behind the meter" (BTM) solar power comes from small, privately owned, often rooftop solar installations and is typically consumed where it is generated. At last count, advised Kakley, there was more than 3400 MW of BTM solar capacity installed in New England or about 15 percent of the region's typical peak electrical load of 23,000 MW. "Knowing when that solar power is going to be available and when it's not is vitally important for our forecasting team because on a cloudy day, we need to make sure we can replace that 3,000 or so MW of capacity," he said. "This task is especially challenging because residential solar shows up on our grid not as a source of power, but rather as a lack of demand." Making Predictions Nonetheless, added Kakley, solar forecasting remains a vital part of ISO-NE's management of two types of energy trading markets: its day-ahead market and the real-time market. The day-ahead market allows energy traders to secure prices the day before delivery while avoiding market price volatility. The real-time market allows market participants to buy and sell wholesale electricity to balance the difference between day-ahead energy commitments and real-time demand for and production of electricity. "We do our solar forecast in five-minute increments and feed it into the overall energy forecast that guides system operations," he said. "Knowing how much solar is being used on the grid helps ISO-NE operators decide which other types of power resources to dispatch (i.e. select) to satisfy fluctuations in demand for electricity." Over the next 10 years, Kakley added, "ISO-NE expects the amount of BTM solar power in New England to double, so it's going to be even more important to have an accurate accounting of how much power those solar panels are producing as part of developing our daily energy forecasts." Keeping the Lights On From a broader perspective, Kakley advised, solar energy and solar forecasting tools are both important parts of a major transformation occurring in the power industry. U.S. cities and states are looking increasingly to renewable energy and new energy-saving technologies as a way to reduce their carbon footprint and their reliance on greenhouse-gas-emitting fossil fuels. "There are a lot of moving parts in this transition of the power grid," said Kakley. "Through it all, our number one job is to make sure that our system works, that it remains reliable and that the lights stay on." If you're ready to add power to your career and some green to your future, please visit www.northropgrumman.com/careers.

Solar Forecasting Helps Ensure Balance, Stability of National Power Grid

Today, we have more information readily available at our fingertips (or by simple voice command) than any other time in history. Whenever you pose a question to Amazon's Alexa or the Google Assistant, you're effectively asking an artificial intelligence (AI) search algorithm to cull the Internet for a brief sentence or two that will answer your question. Exploring the Possibilities Increasingly, architects are using AI-leaning software tools in a similar way, calling on algorithms to cull the world of architectural possibilities quickly and efficiently for design approaches that help to meet the growing demand for sustainable architecture and green technology. "In architecture, AI is generally synonymous with generative design — or, as I like to call it, 'optioneering,'" explains Dan Stine, director of design technology at Lake|Flato Architects, San Antonio, Texas. "Our software tools use algorithms that generate a large number of design options based on parameters we define, then rank those options according to how well they meet our criteria. Ultimately, we select the option that works best for a given project." Pursuing Sustainability HMC Architects describe sustainable architecture as the use of design strategies that reduce the environmental impact of a building. Sustainable architecture principles consider every aspect of the planning and construction process (for new and remodeled properties alike) including:   Choice of building materials  Siting  HVAC and plumbing design  How the building incorporates renewable energy and green technology  Choice of landscaping  Stormwater management  According to Ryan Goold, an associate and architect at Boulder, Colorado-based Sopher Sparn Architects, AI embedded in modern architectural design tools gives his firm an early jump on meeting clients' sustainability goals. "We use AI-based generative design tools to help us decide on the size and appearance of a building (an activity called massing) and how best to orient it on a site to take advantage of passive design strategies such as solar heat gain, natural ventilation and daylighting," he notes. Sustainability goals come into sharper focus in the next step, Goold adds, when he and his team use AI-leaning tools to analyze the environmental impact of the project over its design life. "The environmental analysis not only helps us validate or adjust our massing strategy but also informs the building assemblies and insulation values required to meet or exceed the relevant energy code," he advises. Generating Options As Stine explains, in conjunction with building massing and orientation decisions, architects also rely increasingly on generative design tools to produce multiple floor plan options for projects such as multifamily housing. "Our urban planning studio is using software that takes inputs such as zoning requirements, building setbacks, height limits, and the number and type of housing units, parking requirements, etc. and then generates many examples of how a project of say, 500 units could look — in just seconds," he says. He adds that this same software can also provide cost data for the prospective land developer — information that could help that developer decide if and when to purchase the land and if the proposed project could generate enough income to be profitable. Optimizing Energy Performance Stine notes that one of the more powerful AI-leaning tools Lake|Flato is using involves energy modeling, a process that heretofore has been a rather tedious mix of estimates and guesswork. "In the past, we've had to input an R-value (insulating effectiveness) for every aspect of the project — walls, roof, windows, etc. — then do a calculation for energy consumption and hope we hit our target," he explains. By contrast, their new software tool uses the project design model and location (anywhere in the world) to automatically generate a range of R-values for every aspect of the project for 45-degree increments of building orientation. "We can now dial in the desired energy performance of a building as if we were using a mixing board in a sound studio, pushing sliders to select from hundreds of options while also helping our clients meet their sustainable architecture goals," says Stine. Keeping It Real In some cases, according to Stine, architects may be using AI tools without even realizing it. He points to the computer graphics cards that his firm uses to create realistic renderings of projects to share with clients. "Real-time rendering is a very resource-intensive activity that has to calculate reflections and shadows and animate the subtle motions of water and leaves bustling in the wind," Stine explains. "Our graphics cards use a special chipset that supports AI to render a scene at low resolution then render it at much higher resolution using neural network training." In many cases, he claims, the AI-inspired results are actually better than renderings his team has produced using traditional graphics tools. Putting Trees First Stine highlights another tool that helps to produce sustainable architecture using software to analyze aerial photography of trees and vegetation to predict precisely where tree trunks are located within a canopy of trees. "Knowing the location of trees on a site allows us to design structures that integrate well with that environment, a key tenet of our focus on sustainable architecture," he notes. "We can include this information in our design strategy to produce buildings that our client will love but won't require the removal of trees they're fond of." Searching for Starting Points For all of the advancements in AI-flavored architectural tools, Goold notes that there is still no algorithm that can search a database of previous projects to identify and import examples of good starting points for projects requiring sustainable architecture and green technology. "We're using generative design tools to lay out projects on a site," he clarifies, "but the actual types of units are still mostly in our brains or on paper from past projects. We can open up those old 3D models and bring them into a new design, but in terms of having an AI tool that can search an archive and find exactly what we need, we're not there yet." Measuring the Impact So, what impact is the use of AI and generative design tools having on the architecture profession? Could it begin to disrupt the career trajectories of new or even more senior architects? According to Goold, AI-based tools definitely inform design strategies that architects use to meet sustainability and green technology goals, but "as architects, we're reluctant to give up control when it comes to design." And unlike some professions where AI has disrupted or displaced more junior level jobs, he adds, "Younger members of our staff just out of school often have broader familiarity with these newer emerging tools, which can really help the firm improve its processes." Stine agrees that AI-leaning software is an increasingly important part of architects' tool set, but he believes that there will always be room in any project for both younger and more seasoned design professionals. "The entry-level designer might have better graphic design skills or know more about virtual reality tools, but those tools alone can lead to unworkable or dead-end design solutions," he advises. "That's where a senior designer who understands how design and architecture work in the real world can guide a project back to a successful outcome." Creating a Sustainable Future Looking forward, Stine expects to see AI tools for architecture continuing to mature and move from their largely generative design status today to more critical decision-making roles in the future. He argues that, to date, architects have used AI-like tools to essentially validate their assumptions about design. And even though these assumptions often track with what appeals to the human eye esthetically, AI tools can provide a smarter, more cost-effective approach to sustainable architecture. "Many of the rule-of-thumb assumptions we've used over the years — for example, how deep a beam should be compared to its length — are ideas we can't use anymore," he suggests. "We need to be designing things optimally, and not oversizing beams and HVAC systems because it creates waste and embodied carbon. With better AI design and simulation tools, we can get there — instead of just relying on our assumptions." Delivering the Spice of Life Still, Stine admits there will always be some design features that appeal to the esthetic and emotional sensibilities of humans, even if they fail to meet the sustainability requirements of AI algorithms. "Sometimes it's okay to give an apartment or office a little extra square footage or bump out its faé§ade or add some other interesting visual relief to its design," he suggests. "To a computer, the added feature makes no sense, but to the human who's going to live or work in that space, it makes all the difference and delivers that proverbial spice of life." Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Sustainable Architecture Leans into Artificial Intelligence

 In September 2015, Siemens announced they were cutting their carbon emissions — which totaled 2.2 million metric tons per year — in half by 2020. They hope to be carbon neutral by 2030. But there's a big question you're probably asking: How will they reduce their carbon footprint that quickly? Siemens' Half Measure  Siemens' plan is far-reaching and sounds deceptively simple: They'll invest more than $100 million in building distributed energy systems at their 300-plus factories. They've already started transitioning their 100,000 company vehicles to low-emission models. They're also moving toward a cleaner power mix in their factories tapping mostly natural gas and wind power, which emit little to no carbon dioxide.  Our planet is facing a CO2 emissions problem: Rates of CO2 increased by 7.4 percent between 1990 and 2013, according to the Environmental Protection Agency, with no signs of slowing down. Traffic emissions and industry account for almost 60 percent of those extra CO2 fumes. That's why large companies like Siemens are chasing down these new carbon emissions goals, hoping to erase their large carbon footprint and aid in our planet's recovery. But there are additional benefits to chasing sustainability as well: creating more sustainable systems can reduce spending for large companies (at Siemens, for example, they say sustainability efforts could slash costs by $20 million per year). Some experts also note that increased sustainability efforts can improve recruiting, adding to employees' sense of contributing to a better world.  Enable targeting cookies to view this content. Ford's Efficient Engine  The Ford Motor Company is also in the carbon reduction game. The automotive industry produces approximately 14 percent of global GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions, so Ford has developed an EcoBoost engine which improves fuel efficiency in their vehicles by up to 20 percent. They've also invested $4.5 billion in electrified vehicles and plan to offer 13 new models by 2020 in the U.S. and Canada.  They have partnerships with clean energy companies, as well — they've even installed wind sail and solar PV systems at Ford Dealerships across the U.S. to power buildings and EV charging stations. Dell Shortens the Straw  Dell is reducing their carbon footprint, too: They've recently changed their packaging to wheat straw, which requires 40 percent less energy to produce and 90 percent less water. Dell has also invested heavily in big data and analytics to track and reduce the energy consumption in their facilities. Nestlé© Fueled by Caffeine  Nestlé© is an "older hand" in the charge to reduce carbon emissions — they've been working toward a smaller carbon footprint for years, and have been ranked highly on the Dow Jones Sustainability Index many times because of their extended sustainability efforts. By 2014, they'd phased out 92 percent of their industrial refrigerants, replacing them with environmentally friendly ingredients. In their Mexico-based factories, 85 percent of the electricity comes from wind farms. They also use spent coffee grounds as supplement fuel in 22 factories, among other initiatives. Coke's Big Rig Gig  Coca-Cola has similar goals: They hope to reduce their carbon footprint by 25 percent in 2020 by adjusting their packaging formats, delivery fleets, refrigeration equipment and ingredient sourcing. Coca-Cola's efforts kicked off after the company discovered that their global fleet of trucks emitted approximately 3.7 million metric tons of greenhouse gases in 2014. Now, the company plans to power their trucks with a mix of alternative fuels, including biodiesel, natural gas and electric power. Northrop Grumman's Green Game  Northrop Grumman also has high carbon reduction goals: By 2020, the company plans to reduce their GHG emissions by 30 percent. They plan to reduce potable water use by 20 percent from 2014 levels, and to achieve a 70 percent solid-waste diversion rate.  Sustainability remains one of the most important innovation spaces in large companies — without it, the communities that live around major industry headquarters may be adversely affected. Without working to reduce our carbon footprints, our planet might not be habitable for as long as we hope. That's why thinking broadly, investing in sustainable systems and programs, and teaching employees how to live more sustainably, is more than just important: It's the way of the future.

Shrinking the Carbon Footprint: 6 Companies Putting Their Foot Down

 Over the last 20 years, energy consumption in the United States increased with population growth. The rise in these categories were accompanied by an increase in domestic production, from 68 quads (quadrillion Btu) in 1993 to 79 quads in 2012 according to the U.S. Department of Energy. Increased energy consumption is not unexpected — more people need more energy — but just looking at those numbers hides the detail. Energy has a much more dynamic story line in recent U.S. history. Although 33 states and the Gulf of Mexico produce more energy than 20 years ago, the source of that energy has changed. Today's U.S. residents still consume energy but they aren't tapping into the same kinds as they were two decades ago.Energy Changes Twenty years ago, fossil fuels (gas, coal, petroleum) dominated the energy landscape. Today, they still contribute around 87 percent of total needs in the last decade or so, but renewable energy and biofuels now make more of an impact. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) summarizes annual energy statistics. Comparing energy consumption levels in 1995 with those in 2015 shows that while fossil fuels remained constant at around 79—80 quads, renewables such as wind power, solar, biomass and geothermal rose from 7 to almost 9.5 quads. Among the renewables, wind power now exceeds hydroelectric generating capacity.  Although renewables such as wind and solar supplied less than 10 percent to the national power grid in 2015 (rising from less than 3 percent in 10 years), surging interest in this technology fuels around two-thirds of new electric power plant development in the country. The location of these new plants has surprised some analysts, since they are in states not traditionally invested in renewable energy. For example, in terms of solar farms, California leads the way but North Carolina comes in at a close second; Texas and Kansas have both invested significantly in wind energy. There has also been a change within fossil-fuel supplies, with domestic fracking for oil and gas now contributing more to national energy supplies. In 2000, less than 2 percent of U.S. oil production came from the 23,000 wells; in 2015, 300,000 wells produced 4.3 million barrels per day: more than half of oil production in the country. It's a similar picture for gas. From 2000, gas fracking has increased production from 26,000 wells producing 3.6 billion cubic feet per day (Bcf/d) to a daily output in 2015 of 53 Bcf/d from 300,000 wells. Two-thirds of the total natural gas output in the U.S. now comes from fracking.Energy Impacts As an end user, you won't feel any difference when switching on a kettle or turning the car ignition key. However, to the energy industry, shifting the focus onto renewable energy sources and fracking has had huge impacts. Extraction by fracking is faster and easier than deep-water drilling, so oil costs less to produce. The U.S. is now a top-three oil producer; however, the global oversupply means that the price of oil has dropped, thus reducing production profits. Renewable energy sources are more attractive to develop since overall costs are lower, they are emission-free and more resilient to energy market price fluctuations compared to fossil fuels. Technological advances mean that renewable energy is a more feasible source. For example, wind energy production is more effective due to higher efficiency turbines, reducing costs by two-thirds in the last six years. Renewable energy plants can exist in less populous areas, bringing new types of jobs and manufacturing to rural areas.  Energy Futures Looking to the future, EIA modeling predicts decreased coal consumption over the next 20 years with rising reliance on renewables for U.S. energy needs. As a result, as interest and confidence grows, companies invest more in research and development in renewable energy, and not just here on Earth; Northrop Grumman Systems Corporation is working in collaboration with the California Institute of Technology to develop solar-power technology for space missions. Results from this project could answer energy challenges back on the ground. Furthermore, with technological advances, renewable energy is sufficiently reliable to attract U.S. Navy investment. Marine Corps Air Station Miramar uses renewable energy, capturing waste to power the base. After executing an agreement with the city of San Diego, power converters now capture methane emissions previously flared off from a landfill to generate electricity. More recently, the Department of the Navy invested heavily in solar power, generating capacity to power up to 14 facilities. Not only do both investments reduce costs, but they also decrease reliance on the national power grid. Perhaps this is the biggest impact overall since it means less reliance on external markets and a dwindling resource and increased security. As long as the world population grows, so will the need to find cheap and efficient alternatives to non-renewable energy.

The Rising Future of Energy Consumption

Carbon capture can't reverse climate change, but it's one part of the equation for reducing greenhouse gases. Earth's atmosphere currently contains 415.26 parts per million (ppm) of carbon dioxide (CO2), the highest concentration in human history. Phys.org reports that, "The last time our air contained this much CO2 was more than three million years ago."  The Carbon Problem Excess amounts of CO2 are warming the planet's atmosphere and oceans, melting ice caps, increasing acid in the oceans, and contributing to extreme weather events and rising sea levels. When CO2 concentrations were last this high, global sea levels were several meters higher and parts of Antarctica were covered in forest. While the evidence of climate change is staggering, environmental technology could provide some assistance. The latest improvements in wind and solar technologies are making alternative energy cheap enough to compete with fossil fuels. Still, switching to clean energy takes time, and carbon capture and storage (CCS) could help us keep up with the fast pace of rising global temperatures. Plus, many industries may still rely on applications that require old-fashioned energy sources. Alternative energy sources are helping to decarbonize the power sector, but there are many industrial processes that will require CCS if they are ever going to decarbonize. Cement, iron and steel manufacturing, as well as petroleum refining, are all industries that produce CO2. How Carbon Capture Can Help According to MIT Technology Review, most energy researchers say that CCS will be necessary to address the growing dangers of climate change. "A number of studies have found that without this technology, it's unlikely the world can prevent temperatures from rising more than 2ËšC," writes James Temple. The obvious way to reduce greenhouse gas concentrations is to stop putting carbon into the air. But there are also ways to pull CO2 from the air.   Current Developments in Environmental Technology With the latest technology, carbon emissions can be scrubbed from the air and stored underground. The main reason global temperatures are rising, according to Vox, is that we are removing too much carbon from the geosphere (below ground) and putting it into the biosphere (above ground). Take coal, for example. It starts as a solid underground, but then we mine for it, bring it above ground, and burn it for fuel. The burning process turns it into a gas that then disperses into the atmosphere, where it traps the sun's heat. Several facilities around the world are currently practicing CCS. They capture CO2 from the exhaust stream of a fossil-fuel power plant or heavy industrial process and bury it underground. It's an expensive process, but the cost has dramatically reduced in recent years. CCS is one strategy that can reduce the impact of CO2 on the climate while keeping fossil fuels as options. Existing power plants or industrial equipment could be retrofitted with carbon capture systems that would snatch carbon from the exhaust pipes before it is emitted into the atmosphere. Vox points out that CCS could help power plants become carbon neutral — but not carbon-negative. To get negative emissions, you have to take more carbon from the atmosphere than the ground. How it Works How do you pull carbon from the air? Chemicals. Popular Science breaks down the two capture processes:   Pre-combustion: Carbon is separated from the fuel before it is burned. For coal, you turn it into a gas called syngas, then filter out the carbon. With natural gas, a chemical reaction separates carbon from the methane molecule before it is burned, leaving behind a clean-burning hydrogen gas.  Post-combustion: Plants continue to burn fossil fuels, but they add an extra step that extracts the CO2 before it enters the atmosphere. This is accomplished using aqueous amines, which are liquid chemicals that bind to carbon. Later, the byproduct is burned to release CO2, which can then be pressurized and piped away to underground storage.  Where Does Carbon Go Now? With all the talk about greenhouse gases, it's easy to forget that carbon isn't actually bad for the planet. The problem is that we've been moving it around too much. After carbon is captured from the air, it can be stored underground in porous rock formations. Other than saving the earth in the long term, there isn't much incentive for industries to make an effort to put carbon into these underground saline reservoirs — but what if they could sell the carbon they capture? There are several startups experimenting with new ways to take carbon out of the air. For example, the Allam cycle recycles CO2 from combustion into a high-pressure fluid that can run a turbine — in other words, taking a waste product that is bad for the Earth's health and turning it into energy storage, according to Popular Science. Carbon Engineering, a Canadian startup, has reduced the cost of capturing carbon and is aiming for commercialization in 2021. According to Vox, the cost to capture a ton of CO2 was approximately $600 in 2011, but it's now somewhere between $94 to $232. This is still expensive, but at least Carbon Engineering proves that carbon capture is possible and the technology is improving with time. They plan to use solar-powered electrolysis to draw CO2 from the air. Then, they will use the carbon as an ingredient in low-carbon synthetic fuels. We've put so much carbon into the air that simply reducing emissions might not be enough — but carbon capture could help pull carbon molecules out of the atmosphere and put them to good use, or at least put carbon back into the ground, where it came from.

What Can Carbon Capture Technology Accomplish?

The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that 17 percent of all electricity produced in the United States in 2017 came from renewable energy sources, including solar, wind and hydroelectric dams. That percentage is expected to keep growing as communities seek ways to improve local air quality and reduce greenhouse gas emissions linked by EPA scientists to climate change. Unfortunately, renewable energy sources need proper weather conditions to generate power. And those periods of sunshine, wind or heavy wave action occur only intermittently between 4 p.m. and 9 p.m. when consumer demand for electricity peaks. That's where energy storage technology comes in. The Importance of Energy Storage Technology "If we have energy storage on the grid, we can store excess renewable energy during the day, then distribute it at 6 p.m. when people are getting home from work, turning on their TVs and air conditioners," explained Wes Jones, a spokesperson for San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E). This technology, he added, is also critical for maintaining the stability and reliability of the nation's power grid, which nominally delivers electricity to our outlets at 60 cycles per second (Hz). Grid conditions can cause this frequency to fluctuate. Grid operators can use energy storage assets to add or remove power from the grid to help stabilize the frequency. Pumping for Power  The Department of Energy identified pumped hydroelectric energy storage (PHES) as the most dominant energy storage technology in use today. This technology creates power by pumping water to higher elevations when electricity is plentiful. During peak demand periods, the water is released and allowed to run through turbines that generate electricity. The 1682 MW pumped hydro Castaic Power Plant operated by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, for example, accounts for 2.5 percent of the utility's power portfolio and serves approximately 73,000 customers, according to Louis Ting, LADWP's director of power plant development and engineering. A related technology is called compressed air energy storage (CAES). "Think of [CAES] like 'pumped aero,'" said Ting. "Instead of pumping water from one elevation to another, CAES uses excess renewable energy to compress air and pump it under pressure into underground caverns. When demand is high, the air is heated, released and used to drive turbines that generate electricity." In Lithium-Ion We Trust  Lithium-ion batteries, the same technology used in your laptop or smartphone, are one of the most pervasive forms of energy storage technology in use today, according to Laurence Abcede, SDG&E's manager for distributed energy systems. "Lithium-ion technology is appropriate for both stationary and mobile batteries," he said. "It is cost effective, very reliable and modular, which means you can use it in nearly any application." The New York Times coverage, however, suggested that fire safety concerns with the technology remain. Nonetheless, lithium-ion remains the primary energy storage technology for many new battery storage facilities being developed in California, according to SDG&E news materials. Next in Line IEEE Spectrum magazine highlighted another promising energy storage technology for the grid known as the vanadium redox flow battery. Developed in the mid-1980s at the University of South Wales in Sydney, Australia, VRF technology was matured in 2011 by a team at the DoE's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory in Washington State. Unlike lithium batteries, which store energy in small cells, VRF batteries store their energy in two tanks of electrolytes separated by an ion exchange membrane. The battery generates a current by converting the chemical energy of the electrolytes into electrical energy; reversing this process allows the battery to charge itself from the electric grid. The requirement to maintain two tanks of electrolytes and related pumping equipment makes VRF technology better suited to utility-scale applications than portable applications. Durable Design, Longer Life VRF batteries also offer compelling performance benefits over lithium ion. "VRF batteries have a lifespan of 20+ years and can be completely charged and discharged repeatedly, without damaging the battery system," explained Abcede. "Best of all," he added, "VRF technology is not combustible." The DoE reported that VRF technology is being used widely today in Asia and Europe, with a growing presence in the U.S. A Multi-Purpose Future  Jeff Bishop, CEO for Key Capture Energy, a Houston-based developer of grid-scale electric projects, views energy storage as "the Swiss Army knife of the electric industry," serving the grid in many new and unexpected ways. "You're going to see storage paired with solar and wind power generation facilities both on- and offshore, and used increasingly as central generation to replace fossil fuels," he said. "It will also help reduce the need for new transmission infrastructure, serve as a microgrid for installations such as hospitals, and add reliability and stability to the electric grid." "As costs come down and the technology matures, it's going to be unstoppable."

Energy Storage Technology Helps Renew, Stabilize Electric Grid

Atmocean has a promising solution for the future of clean, affordable water and environmental sustainability. Among the many alternative energy sources available, Atmocean has settled on wave energy as a tool for converting ocean water into fresh water and opening up new coastal agriculture opportunities in countries around the world. Waves Roll In, Energy Rolls Out The Atmocean system relies on capturing wave energy through an array pump system; however, instead of generating electrical energy through transformers pumping energy into the grid, the arrays pump seawater ashore. Arriving under pressure, it undergoes desalination by reverse osmosis, where salt and other solutes get forced out, leaving drinkable water behind, according to the Organization of American States. This ingenious system neatly sidesteps the energy hunger in traditional desalination systems that is a big deciding factor in operation and economy. Ocean Harvest on Land Using ocean power to create fresh water could open up crop irrigation for many who have these alternative energy sources quite literally on their doorstep. The system — designed for easy implementation — uses a modular design that is straightforward to ship and uses local resources. Without needing an external energy supply or highly technical infrastructure, nations can tap this abundant local natural resource through what Atmocean describes as a Zero Electricity Reverse Osmosis desalination system. For the global community, especially in areas where water supplies are vanishing, this system could help make the world's coastal deserts green, said Atmocean. Seawater In, Fish Out Atmocean believes their technology will help revive areas where fishing has become sparse. "As marine fishing closures come into effect, fishery stakeholders may be forced to move away from their livelihood ... Atmocean arrays help restore the ocean ecosystem as they act as de facto Marine Protected Areas or MPAs. These artificial nurseries allow natural fishing stocks to recover, setting the area on course for future fishing opportunities." Wave arrays introduce floating networks of pumps and anchors to habitats, which can have both negative and positive impacts. There is a risk of fouling, with larger ocean mammals getting tangled in mooring lines and equipment, according to Oregon State University. However, the university also suggests that with careful planning, wave energy arrays could also be a boon for smaller creatures. As artificial reefs, they could provide sheltered no-go zones to colonize and inhabit, where prey species could live and breed safely out of reach from predators. Alternative Energy Sources Since this type of marine renewable energy system has not been tested over long periods, the effect on the coastal environment is mostly unknown. However, as ocean fisheries decline, and opportunities for self-sufficiency disappear, wave energy that turns salty seawater into a tool for farming could be a game-changer for many nations currently struggling with food security. In addition, not only could a zero-energy desalination system deliver crop irrigation for farming in areas where growing crops is a struggle, but the introduction of new operations such as fish farming could deliver sustainable and self-supporting agriculture to many coastal communities around the world. There is also a possibility that as wave energy harvesting becomes more efficient, these coastal communities could also become the net energy exporters of the future, reversing dependent status and playing a greater role in the global market. In the meantime, we need more innovators to keep pushing the boundaries of alternative energy so we can offer more solutions to problems that may ultimately affect us all.

Harvesting Wave Energy for Fresh Water

According to the American Trucking Associations, more than 72% of goods and services moved in the U.S. travel by trucks. And more than 60% of the miles logged by the trucking industry come from heavy-duty diesel-powered, greenhouse gas-emitting semi-trailer trucks. A smarter, cleaner way to maintain that interstate flow of goods while mitigating climate change would be to power the long-haul trucking sector with hydrogen fuel cells. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have been around for a long time, but long-haul truckers still face the classic chicken-and-egg cost and infrastructure dilemma that other clean energy sectors have experienced. Clean, Green Power According to the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association, a fuel cell is a device that generates electricity through an electrochemical reaction, not combustion. It combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water. In transportation applications, the electricity powers the electric motor that drives the vehicle's propulsion system. And because fuel cells contain no moving parts, they operate silently with extremely high reliability. "You can think of a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle as an electric vehicle where you've replaced the battery with a fuel cell, and the electric charge used for 'fuel' with compressed hydrogen gas," explained Kenneth "K.C." Neyerlin, an electrochemist with the Electrochemical Engineering and Materials Chemistry group at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Depending on the current density being delivered, a typical fuel cell operates in the range of 0.6 to 0.95 volts. FCVs typically combine several hundred fuel cells into a so-called "stack" to achieve the voltage and power levels required to operate the vehicle. Building on Success Auto manufacturers such as General Motors, Toyota, Honda and Hyundai have been accumulating hydrogen cell research since the early 1990s. Toyota unveiled its first FCV in 1996, continued maturing and demonstrating its FCV technology through the 2000s, then began selling the Toyota Mirai, a mid-size fuel cell sedan, in the U.S. in 2015. Jim Kast, a fuel cell business analyst with Toyota Motor North America (TMNA), explained that, today, the company is building on its Mirai experience to develop hydrogen fuel cell-powered Class 8 (semi-trailer) trucks as part of two company initiatives. "In 2019, we partnered with the Kenworth Truck Company to develop 10 zero-emission Kenworth T680s powered by Toyota hydrogen fuel cell electric powertrains," said Kast. "The collaboration is part of an initiative sponsored by the California Air Resources Board and the Port of Los Angeles to put zero-emissions cargo-handling equipment and hydrogen fueling infrastructure to work in the LA basin." Several of those Kenworth trucks are already built and expected to begin operating on trade routes in the greater Los Angeles area in 2021, he added. TMNA is also working with Hino USA to develop a Class 8 fuel cell electric truck for the North American market. The new truck will use the Mirai hydrogen fuel cell technology — except that it will use two fuel cell stacks to power a Hino XL Series chassis. According to Kast, a hydrogen fuel cell semi-trailer truck is similar in size, look and feel to a conventional diesel-powered Class 8 vehicle. However, it's quieter, has zero-emissions and provides better performance. "Our new fuel-cell trucks will deliver horsepower performance similar to a diesel truck, except you'll have a bit more torque — which means faster, more immediate acceleration — coming from the electric powertrain," he said. "The conventional diesel fuel tanks in the (semi-trailer) cab will be replaced with hydrogen fuel tanks." The initial Hino truck will have a range of about 300 miles (482.8 km) per tank of hydrogen, he added. Less Weight, More Efficiency For NREL's Neyerlin, hydrogen fuel cells are particularly attractive as a fuel source compared with batteries for long-haul trucking. "If you're doing heavy-duty trucking with batteries, you not only have to carry your goods, but you also have to carry the weight of every battery you need," he commented. "At some point, that Nth battery is only going to be carrying more batteries, not more goods." By comparison, he added, you can increase the size of pressurized hydrogen storage tanks on a truck for much less weight than adding a battery, and put more fuel cells in series to create higher-power stacks with an energy density higher than batteries. Another advantage of using hydrogen fuel cells versus batteries for big rigs is that refueling a fuel-cell powered semi is comparable to filling up a similar diesel-powered truck (10 to 15 minutes). However, charging a semi's batteries could require several hours, even with a fast-charging system. And any time spent charging batteries beyond 15 minutes is time spent not delivering goods and earning revenue. Overcoming Barriers For all the advantages of using hydrogen fuel cells for long-haul trucking, two distinct barriers to widespread adoption of this technology still remain: the cost of hydrogen and the availability of hydrogen fueling infrastructure. "The price of hydrogen at the pump right now is $10 to $15 per kilogram in California," said Mike Peters, a hydrogen infrastructure engineer with NREL. "That number needs to be closer to $3 to $5 per kilogram for fuel cell-based trucking to be cost competitive with diesel trucking. We have to continue pushing prices down, and we need to push for initiatives to produce green hydrogen, whether that's through electrolysis coupled with wind or solar energy, steam methane reforming with carbon capture or capturing hydrogen as a waste product of certain processes." In October 2020, the Department of Energy (DOE) announced the formation of a new consortium, H2NEW, to reduce the costs of hydrogen production, transport, storage, distribution and use in multiple energy sectors. Co-led by NREL and the Idaho National Laboratory, H2NEW will focus on advancing both low- and high-temperature electrolysis techniques in hopes of achieving hydrogen production at $2 per kg. The DOE also recently funded the Million-Mile Fuel Cell Truck consortium, which is a collection of national labs and academic and industrial partners focused on the improving the durability, performance and cost of fuel cells to enable long-haul, fuel-cell-powered trucks. "Our hope is that by approaching the hydrogen fuel cell challenge from both the production and operation ends, we can solve some of the 'chicken-egg' dilemma that has stymied the growth of a hydrogen-based transportation segment so far," suggested Neyerlin. Greening Forward NREL's and H2NEW's work to reduce the cost of hydrogen will assist the broader goal of creating the hydrogen fueling infrastructure needed for a fuel-cell-based long-haul trucking industry. The main push to retain hydrogen fueling stations is currently happening in California, where the California Energy Commission (CEC) is funding the development of a network of hydrogen fueling stations through its Clean Transportation Program. To date, the CEC has funded the development of 45 light-duty retail stations with 16 more under construction. In December 2020, the CEC announced plans to invest in the development of 111 additional hydrogen fueling stations by 2027 to help meet California's climate change goals. A portion of those stations will be dual-purpose stations that can serve both consumer and heavy-duty vehicles. Same but Different At first glance, a hydrogen fueling station might look similar to a conventional gasoline dispensing station, but its infrastructure is completely different. "A hydrogen fueling station consists of three components: compression, storage and dispensing, and those components interact to fill the vehicle," explained Peters. "The goal is to transfer hydrogen stored at high pressure (10,000 psi) from the station to a vehicle in a safe manner." To ensure a safe transfer, he added, hydrogen is cooled to a temperature of about -40 degrees Celsius. This compensates for the fact that hydrogen expands as it flows out of storage and heats up the vehicle tank. A series of communication checks and balances between the station and vehicle further ensure the safety of the fueling transaction. "The dispensing of hydrogen is very similar to the process that drivers of gasoline vehicles are familiar with," said Peters. "You just swipe your credit card, pull the nozzle from its dispenser, connect it to your car and squeeze the trigger. In three to five minutes, your car will be filled, and you'll be back on the road." Starting Where It Makes Cents California's proactive approach to hydrogen fueling infrastructure is a good start, but it's not enough to pay for the national fueling infrastructure that will be needed to power a fuel-cell based long-haul trucking industry. Peters believes that the initial hydrogen fueling infrastructure could potentially be underwritten by fleet operators whose trucks operate on fixed routes and predictable schedules. "If you had trucks coming and going from say, a port, on a set schedule, or going to the same city and back on a regular schedule, you could justify having a few hydrogen fueling stations," he proposed. "The key driver of such an investment would be to make sure it has a high utilization rate." Such an approach might also work for Amazon, UPS or FedEx, added Peters, since their fleets typically operate on fairly fixed routes and return to a central warehouse at night. Creating Partnerships Kast is also optimistic about the long-term willingness of ports and energy companies to invest in hydrogen fueling infrastructure. For example, TMNA has partnered with Shell Oil to develop three such stations in the Los Angeles region to support heavy-duty trucks. "We're working with Shell on matching supply and demand, not only for these first three stations but also for an additional 50 stations for light-duty vehicles," said Kast. "That volume will help them bring down the cost of this infrastructure, and it potentially incentivizes them to also invest in renewable hydrogen production." Gaining Momentum Hydrogen fuel cells and related infrastructure are clearly a compelling environmental choice, especially as they grow in technical maturity and availability. But they still have a way to go. As Kast noted, the good news is that "hydrogen is no longer the fuel of the future, as it has been for so long. With all the new targets for zero emission vehicles, and all the new funding coming through, it's something we're going to start seeing in trucks on the road in just a few years. It won't be every truck, obviously, but the momentum is strong and continuing."

Hydrogen Fuel Cells Could Power the Future of Long-Haul Trucking

To help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and U.S. reliance on fossil fuels, more and more communities on the Eastern Seaboard are turning to offshore wind energy. As of early 2019, nearly 26 gigawatts of offshore energy were operational, in development or planned according to the 2018 Offshore Wind Technologies Market Report developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and the U.S. Department of Energy. How best to connect that power to onshore users — the top two contenders are dedicated transmission lines from each wind farm to shore, often called generator lead lines, and shared ocean transmission grids — has inspired earnest debate among wind farm developers, independent transmission developers, government agencies and environmentalists. To be clear, there is currently only one operational offshore wind farm in the U.S — the five-turbine, 30-megawatt (MW) Block Island Wind Farm off the coast of Rhode Island — and no ocean transmission grids. Developed by Deepwater Wind (which was acquired by Danish power company é˜rsted in 2018), Block Island became operational in 2016. Reckoning With Risk "In the near term, the transmission grid debate is complicated," explained Kirsty Townsend, director of North American special projects for é˜rsted, the world's largest wind farm developer. "Many of the risks associated with such grids, such as the costs of onshore transmission upgrades or the costs of downtime or delays in development, have yet to be fully vetted and allocated appropriately, which poses a potential cost risk to consumers." é˜rsted doesn't view shared offshore grids as the wrong choice in the long term, Townsend continued, but would like to see the concept matured in a way that recognizes and mitigates those risks. Harnessing the Wind Offshore wind farms consist of multiple wind turbines, each on its own stationary or floating platform. Each turbine includes a two- or three-blade rotor that converts wind energy into electricity as it turns. The power from each turbine is delivered by underwater cables to a stationary collector station within the wind farm. From there, the power is delivered to a "point of interconnection" on shore using either high voltage alternating current (HVAC) cables (for wind farms located within 30 miles of shore) or converted to direct current (HVDC) and exported to shore (for wind farms located more than 30 miles offshore). These power export cables are typically buried in trenches in the sea floor. Under the current rules of engagement, generator lead lines are designed and constructed by the wind farm developers. A shared ocean transmission grid, by contrast, would collect power from multiple wind farms and deliver it to shore in one or more higher capacity lines. Ocean transmission grids would also be developed, funded and constructed independently of the power generation process. Connecting With Consumer Wallets Independent transmission companies such as Wakefield, Massachusetts-based Anbaric Development Partners believe that ocean transmission grids offer the most favorable long-term benefits for consumers. "Offshore wind developers typically connect their wind farms to landfall locations with the closest access to the onshore grid," explained Peter Shattuck, president of Anbaric's proposed Connecticut OceanGrid. In the long term, he added, that approach is problematic. "The current approach gives 'early bird' offshore wind developers the most favorable cable landfall locations and potentially puts future developers at a cost disadvantage, which ultimately hurts consumers." he said. A more critical issue, he continued, is that a given landfall location may not have sufficient local power demand or the transmission infrastructure to receive and connect large amounts of wind power to the grid. Such a bottleneck could lead to significant and costly upgrades to the onshore transmission infrastructure. A more cost-effective approach, he proposed, would be to build an offshore transmission grid and connect it to the onshore grid at population centers where demand for electricity is much higher, where the existing infrastructure would need fewer upgrades to accommodate the infusion of wind energy. Such an approach would also require fewer cables running to shore from the offshore grid, which could decrease the potential impact of cable installations on sensitive marine habitats. Keeping Fishermen on the Water Lane Johnston, programs manager for the Responsible Offshore Development Alliance (RODA), a coalition of fishing industry associations and fishing companies that works to ensure the compatibility of offshore development with commercial fishing interests, concurs with Shattuck's "less is more" outlook. "If [an offshore transmission network] means there's going to be fewer structures in the water and fewer opportunities for conflicts with fishing, that would be better," she said. The most important consideration for fishermen, Johnston offered, is that they have the opportunity to participate in the debate about how transmission lines can or should be run and how that might affect their livelihood. "We need good science and credible information to help fishermen keep fishing," she said. "With better information, we can provide more educated recommendations about how to minimize the impact of the offshore wind industry on the fishing industry." Clearing Regulatory Hurdles Any transmission grid or generator lead line installed offshore must be vetted and permitted by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), the U.S. Department of the Interior agency responsible for managing development of the nation's offshore resources. The agency reviews and provides environmental and technical guidance on offshore wind projects within the nation's so-called "exclusive economic zone," which extends from approximately three to 200 miles offshore. "Before BOEM can grant a 'right of way' for a new transmission line, we have to analyze and assess each project for potential competitive interest," explained Josh Gange, an energy program specialist in BOEM's Office of Renewable Energy Programs. "We're required to publish the details of each project, what it is, where it's located, and provide a comment period for other potential developers, the general public and other stakeholders." If BOEM determines that a competitive interest exists, he added, the agency will conduct an auction among bidders for the desired right of way. Once that right-of-way grant is issued, the winning bidder completes a detailed survey of the proposed route, and maps out details of the project in a General Activities Plan. BOEM also oversees the preparation of an environmental impact statement, conducts a technical review of the project, and conducts project reviews with other government organizations potentially affected by the project. "We consult with organizations such as NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency) regarding fisheries issues or endangered species protections, and the Department of Defense, who might advise us to avoid an area for national security reasons," said Gange. Coordination Challenges Ultimately, any decision to develop ocean transmission grids lies in the hands of state energy agencies such as the Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources (DOER). Like other New England states, Massachusetts views offshore wind energy as a way to help meet its green energy goals and grow energy-related jobs. To date, the state's electric distribution companies have procured approximately 1,600 MW of the 3,200 MW offshore wind energy they plan to acquire by 2035, all of it from wind farm projects that use generator lead lines. According to Joanna Troy, DOER's director of policy and planning, one option for delivering the remaining 1,600 MW to shore could be to solicit proposals for independent transmission of that power. "In our 2018 Offshore Wind Study," she said, "we noted that there are benefits to coordinated [i.e., shared] offshore wind transmission, but there are also costs and risks associated with it." Troy recognizes, however, that any regional offshore transmission grid — think of it as an "interstate highway for power" — would require coordination with other states and the Independent Service Operator New England to get developed and start producing the large-scale cost and reliability benefits touted by some transmission developers. Leaning Forward Anbaric is already laying the groundwork for such interstate coordination to play out. In November 2019, the company filed an application with BOEM for non-exclusive rights of way to develop a Southern New England OceanGrid, an offshore transmission network that would connect up to 16,000 MW of offshore wind energy to Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. Among its benefits, offers Shattuck, would be increased competition among offshore wind developers vying for power purchase agreements (PPAs) with onshore utility companies. "Connecting (transmission lines) to the onshore grid can be one of the most challenging aspects of developing offshore wind farms," he said. "By separating transmission from offshore wind energy generation, companies can focus on optimizing the costs of the power produced by their wind farms and not have to include transmission costs in their PPA bids to utilities." Protecting the Present é˜rsted's Townsend concurs with Shattuck that developing offshore transmission lines and connecting them to the onshore grid pose risks for offshore wind developers. But she also believes her industry is better positioned to manage and mitigate those risks. "There is a lot of risk associated with constructing offshore transmission lines, which is why we inherently prefer to control those assets," she said. "We have the experience to build them to a quality standard, maintain them, mitigate risks and keep the overall cost of green energy down." The related concern, expressed by advocates of both generator lead lines and offshore transmission grids, is described as "project-on-project" risk: Offshore wind developers fear that shared ocean transmission grids won't be ready in time to bring offshore wind energy ashore, while independent transmission developers suggest that under the current approach, onshore transmission upgrades may not be ready in time to connect generator lead lines. Committing to the Journey Shared ocean transmission grids, Townsend believes, represent the future for the offshore wind industry, particularly for the U.S., with its onshore grid constraints. In the near term, however, she believes the quest should be a journey, not a quick fix. "The current problem is that no single entity — federal or state — has sufficient information or political will to bring together the right people to design both the technical and regulatory system that will provide a permanent, 'no regrets' solution," she said. The goal, she continued, should be to "stay on the path in a disciplined, streamlined way; try to avoid any wrong turns we might regret later, and work together to reach a destination that represents a profitable and productive future for all parties concerned." If you're ready to connect your career to a network of dedicated professionals, please visit www.northropgrumman.com/careers.

Connecting Offshore Wind Energy to Onshore Users

It's a wonder that hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles aren't more popular in cities around the world. Powered with the most abundant element in the universe and using technology that emits only water, hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles only number in the thousands. Electric cars, on the other hand, are expected to reach 4.5 million by 2020, according to McKinsey. Several car manufacturers, including Hyundai, Honda and Toyota, are aiming higher, though, and have set goals to sell hundreds of thousands of hydrogen-powered cars within the next few years, reports NPR.  But fuel cells are expensive, and methods used to split water molecules (H2O) into oxygen (O2) and hydrogen gas (H2), are energy-intensive. Currently, 95% of the hydrogen produced in the United States comes from natural gas, according to the Department of Energy. That makes environmentalists uneasy because an otherwise emission-free fuel is produced through fossil fuel extraction and development. But research teams are working on new ways to develop clean hydrogen using renewable electricity generated by the sun or wind. Here's how.  Sun and Saltwater  From their vantage, about three miles from the Pacific coast, researchers at Stanford University in California see the ocean every day. Now they've found a way to use that abundant saltwater in a well-known process called electrolysis, a technique that uses electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. The reaction typically occurs inside a unit called an electrolyzer, where a power source connects to an anode (positive end) and a cathode (negative end) submerged in water. When a certain voltage runs through the water, oxygen comes out of the anode and hydrogen gas bubbles out of the cathode. That gas can be captured and run through a fuel cell.  Researchers would like to produce hydrogen gas from ocean water, since it's so plentiful. But negatively charged chloride particles in seawater salt can corrode the positive end of the electrolyzer, ruining the unit within hours of use. Relying on purified water is an option, but in a world where drought and pollution are increasing, fresh water is a diminishing resource.  Professor Hongjie Dai of Stanford and his colleagues think they have a solution. They discovered that if they coated the anode with a negatively charged material, it repelled the negatively charged chloride particles and reduced corrosion. The material they developed is layered, with a foam core made of nickel metal, surrounded by nickel sulfide, topped with nickel-iron hydroxide. In lab experiments, Dai and his colleagues were able to run up to 10 times more electricity through their multi-layer coating without the risk of corrosion. "I think we set a record on the current to split seawater," Dai said in a press release.  They also made a solar-powered prototype machine that produced as much clean hydrogen as conventional technologies do that use purified water. If Dai and his team can scale up such a system, the hydrogen fuel they produce would be 100% emission-free.  Harnessing Wind for Hydrogen  About 10 miles north of the British mainland, a Scottish archipelago of islands, reefs and islets weather the battering winds of the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. Historically, the enclave, called Orkney, has relied on diesel fuel. Over the last decade, though, wind turbines have sprouted like weeds, and today the island community is home to the highest concentration of wind turbines in the United Kingdom, according to Orkney Renewable Energy Forum. Recently, efforts have been made to use the wind energy to generate clean hydrogen fuel. The idea is to use it to power ferries that regularly transport people and goods between the islands and the mainland.  Such a notion emerged on the small Orcadian island of Eday, which is home to about 150 people. In 2012, the community commissioned the installation of a 900-kilowatt wind turbine. The island is also home to a tidal energy site, which generates electricity from the motion of tides. Both renewable energy systems generate so much electricity that the residents had to figure out what to do with the excess. They decided to use it to produce clean hydrogen via electrolysis. By 2017, they had shipped the first delivery of hydrogen gas to the nearby island of Kirkwell, according to Community Energy Scotland.  That's just the beginning, though. Representatives from the European Marine Energy Centre say they want to expand the production of clean hydrogen to power local vessels that rely on diesel.  Other Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicles  Seafaring vessels powered by hydrogen fuel are just one of several new vehicles trading fossil fuels for emission-free fuel cells. For instance, hydrogen-powered trains and trams are rolling down the tracks in the United Kingdom, Germany and China. Hydrogen-powered aircraft are also coming online. The Skai eVTOL by Alakai Technologies, based in Fairfax, Virginia, the Element One by Singapore-based HES Energy Systems and the HY4 by HY4, based in Germany are just a handful of the newest examples.  The state of California is building out a network of hydrogen filling stations for cars between Los Angeles and San Diego. That kind of infrastructure on the ground could incentivize vehicle manufacturers to build hydrogen-fueled cars, and also encourage customers to buy them.  When it comes to the elements, hydrogen is literally number one. That's its place on the periodic table, and hydrogen makes up more than 90% of all of the atoms in the universe, according to the Los Alamos National Laboratory. Expanding renewable energy resources such as solar and wind power could be humanity's best chance at exploiting hydrogen's full energy potential. If we can, we could power the world with zero emissions. 

Clean Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicles Powered by the Wind and Sun

In a world where the health of the planet is increasingly a top-of-mind issue, commercial architects face a dual and somewhat daunting challenge: design buildings that (1) meet their functional requirements in an elegant, visually compelling way, while (2) implementing the latest principles of sustainable engineering; i.e. making use of energy, water and local natural resources in an efficient, sustainable fashion.   Designing a Green Future   Fortunately, architects across the country are tackling this challenge head-on, creating recreational, work and educational environments that exhibit a new brand of aesthetics in architecture and help create a strong, sustainable future for the planet.   Much of this new breed of sustainable design and construction has been motivated by a set of building standards developed in 2000 by the U.S. Green Building Council. Known as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), these standards are used internationally for the design, construction and maintenance of sustainable, high-efficiency buildings and infrastructure, both commercial and residential.   Building projects can receive LEED certification in one of four categories — Certified, Silver, Gold and Platinum — depending on points scored in five categories ranging from water efficiency to indoor environmental quality.   Small Changes, Big Improvement    One such LEED Platinum project is the Oregon Zoo Education Center in Portland, Oregon. Designed by Portland-based Opsis Architecture, and completed in 2016, the new complex of buildings represents a major redevelopment of an older plaza on the western edge of the Oregon Zoo. It embraces the theme "Small Things Matter," and strives to educate its 1.6 million annual visitors about small, sustainable actions they can take on a daily basis to maintain a healthy planet.   "The Oregon Zoo Education Center was an attempt to connect with kids and adults on absolutely critical issues of habitat, wildlife and overall environment to help them feel empowered to make a difference in the fight against climate change," said Alec Holser, a founding partner of Opsis Architecture and the lead architect for the project.   Architecturally, he explained, Opsis' goal for the project was to help visitors experience activities inside the building and directly outside the building in a seamless way. This focus on aesthetics in architecture for example, inspired a "woven" structure of curvilinear steel and wood in the center's Nature Exploration Station (NESt), a reference to nests woven together by animals to create shelter in the natural world. Similarly, the center's two curved roofs reflect spiral patterns found frequently in nature.   Sustainable engineering features of the center include a solar photovoltaic array, an efficient use of natural ventilation to minimize cooling costs, and a high degree of rainwater capture for on-site irrigation. These features contribute to the center's designation as a net-zero-energy facility; i.e. over the course of a calendar year, it generates as much power as it consumes.   In April, the American Institute of Architects awarded the Oregon Zoo Education Center a 2019 Committee of the Environment (COTE) Top 10 Award.   Giving New Wings to Production   Some facilities, such as Northrop Grumman's Building 100 in St. Augustine, Florida, represent the blending of traditional manufacturing environments with aesthetics in architecture. The LEED Gold-certified Building 100 is one of the company's aircraft manufacturing centers.    Opened in 2015, the facility was designed, engineered and constructed by The Austin Company, Irvine, California, to meet a rigorous list of aircraft production requirements. Equally important, however, explains Ken Stone, The Austin Company's Building 100 project executive, were two other Northrop Grumman requirements.   "The company wanted the new facility to provide a much more "people-focused" environment for its employees and government customers," he explained. "And they wanted it to be as sustainable as possible, following Northrop Grumman's commitment to a green, environmentally-sensitive future."   Putting Humans First   Aesthetics in architecture are reflected in the "human scale" of Building 100's entrance, added Stone.   "Instead of simply incorporating the employee entrance, cafeteria and auditorium into the corner of a big box, we designed these facilities as single-story structures leading into the main manufacturing building," said Stone. "Our idea was to soften the interface between the production center and the entrance road and parking lot. We also wanted to be respectful of the wetlands that are right there."   Per its Gold LEED certification, Building 100 is a showcase of sustainable engineering practices including:     312-kilowatt, roof-installed solar photovoltaic system that offsets much of the facility's power requirements  High-efficiency air conditioning systems, and water-efficient plumbing fixtures throughout the facility  Translucent panels around the entire perimeter of the manufacturing high bay that allow natural light into the aircraft production areas  LED lighting that automatically controls its energy output to complement the amount of natural light available  White reflective roof and concrete (vs. asphalt) parking areas to reduce the heat island effect  Water retention pond that works with adjacent federal wetlands to provide irrigation to the site's native landscaping  Showers and lockers for employees who bicycle to work, and electric-vehicle charging stations for those who drive non-fossil-fueled vehicles    End-to-End Innovation   Denver University's (DU) Burwell Center for Career Achievement reflects new concepts in education and architecture. Designed by Lake | Flato Architects, San Antonio, Texas, the new student facility is currently under construction and expected to open in the fall of 2020. It aspires to be the first LEED-certified Platinum building on the DU campus and one of the first LEED version 4 Platinum-certified buildings in the State of Colorado.   The Burwell Center was conceived as a new type of academic environment: an "end-to-end" educational facility that would serve as an incoming student's first experience at the DU campus, a site for ongoing personal and professional growth throughout a student's college years, and a place for graduating students to connect and network with corporate recruiters and members of the DU alumni community.   "The University of Denver stakeholders wanted this new facility to express an authenticity consistent with the school's commitment to a sustainable future for its campus and the region," said Dan Craig, an architect with Denver-based Shears Adkins + Rockmore Architects, associate architect for the Burwell Center project.   Building Authenticity   Central to that authenticity — and a tribute to sustainable engineering — was a decision to use advanced mass timber construction instead of traditional heavy timber, steel and load-bearing masonry techniques to build the center.   Mass timber describes a family of engineered wood products that involve laminating and compressing a large number of smaller pieces of wood to create larger wood beams and other structural elements. Unlike traditional heavy timber, which involves harvesting old-growth forests and milling single pieces of lumber from large trees, mass timber beams are made from 20-year-old — new growth — trees grown in sustainable, responsibly-managed forests. According to the American Wood Council, these forests provide a steady, renewable source of wood products that continue to store carbon and offset the use of fossil fuels.   "Mass timber systems are lighter, more stable and, in many ways, structurally superior to steel," explained Craig. "They offer opportunities to achieve building heights and spans that once required concrete, steel and masonry for structural support, which helps foster a new brand of innovation and aesthetics in architecture."   In keeping with its pursuit of a LEED Platinum certification, the Burwell Center will include solar photovoltaic arrays on its roof; efficient, low-flow plumbing fixtures, and state-of-the-art temperature control and air-handling systems to optimize students' experience of the building, added Craig.   Contemplating Climate Change   All of these architectural projects reflect, in their own way, the nation's growing awareness of climate change and the need to inspire its citizens to take sustainable actions to help avert this existential crisis. Opsis' Holser perhaps sums it up best:   "The changes we're confronting now require a certain level of deep thinking and reflection," he observed. "As architects, we have the opportunity to create calm, contemplative spaces where people can pause, gather their mind space, and begin to think about how small individual actions taken collectively can begin to make a difference to our future."   If you'd like to create a sustainable, people-focused career, please visit us at northropgrumman.com/careers.  

Sustainable Engineering LEEDs to Architectural Innovation

Around the world, climate change and architecture are turning cities into ovens. Higher-than-average temperatures — combined with heat-absorbing infrastructure such as concrete, asphalt, steel and glass — can cause a dangerous phenomenon called the heat island effect. Using air conditioning only exacerbates the problem. From Albuquerque, New Mexico, to Zeehan, Western Australia, urban areas record summertime temperatures that are 10 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit hotter than the surrounding countryside. As global temperatures continue to rise, tens of thousands of people could die each year from heat-related causes alone, according to the World Health Organization.  Fortunately, the future of architecture is taking on a cool change. Dozens of innovative building and urban designs, many of which take their cues from ancient civilizations and biological systems, are reaching maturity — and they could help keep local temperatures down while using less energy overall. From passive techniques that capitalize on shade and evaporative cooling to creative innovations inspired by insects, sources of creativity seem endless.  Climate Change and Architecture  Reducing the urban heat island effect starts with cooling individual buildings. Air conditioners may seem like an easy solution, but these relatively small appliances consume tens of thousands of megawatts of electricity globally. Researchers estimate that by 2050, more than 4.5 billion AC units will be in use, eating up 13% of the world's electricity and producing 2 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually, reports The Guardian. Employing passive cooling techniques could keep buildings comfortable without a heavy carbon footprint.  In India, architects Manit Rastogi and Sonali Rastogi, who founded the firm Morphogenesis, have demonstrated an intriguing model that draws from the past. For the Pearl Academy of Fashion headquarters in Jaipur, a city of 3 million in northwest India, the architects used centuries-old architectural techniques to keep this modern building cool, reports Treehugger. They clad the exterior in a lattice screen set 4 feet away from the exterior wall. The outside layer, reminiscent of a traditional jaali, acts as a thermal buffer. Architects designed the building to be raised above a vast pool of water. The pool was inspired by ancient stepwells that date back to between 200 and 400 A.D. It acts as a thermal sink and provides evaporative cooling to the structure above. Together, these techniques keep the academy 20 degrees F cooler than the outside air.  Bio-Inspired Design  Most people look upon termites with scorn. These insects are known for burrowing into wood and eating homes from the inside out. But termites are accomplished engineers. In the sweltering deserts of Africa, Australia and South America, colonies build giant, naturally cooled towers of mud that, when dry, maintain a comfortable temperature inside, even when it's well over 100 degrees F outside.  Zimbabwean architect Mick Pearce took inspiration from these crafty critters, reports National Geographic. He found that termite towers, usually between 20 and 40 feet tall, are all built with a skinny, boat-shaped footprint that narrows at the top. These structures always face north-to-south, which exposes the widest part to the sun during the coolness of dawn and dusk and shows little surface to the sun when it's overhead. Strategically placed pores and a chimney-like structure allow air to pass up from the cool depths, venting warm air out the top.  Pearce borrowed from the termites when designing a building called Eastgate in Zimbabwe's capital city, Harare. It's made from brick and concrete — materials that can absorb a lot of the sun's heat without rising much in temperature. Exterior grooves along with hundreds of small rectangular shapes greatly increase the surface area, which reduces the building's ability to retain daytime heat and improves its ability to quickly shed heat at night. Airways at the base of the structure pull in cool air and circulate it upward through the building, where it warms and then vents through chimneys. Temperatures inside the building hover around 82 degrees F during the day, no matter what the thermometer says outside, and drop to 57 degrees F at night. Pearce has employed biomimicry architecture for several other buildings and continues to improve on his designs.  Cooling Urban Streets  Reducing the heat of individual buildings is a step in the right direction. Coupled with innovations in street design, urban architecture can transform a concrete jungle into a cool oasis. Recently, Abu Dhabi, capital of the United Arab Emirates and one of the hottest cities on the planet, sponsored a global design competition encouraging creative ideas that could counter the urban heat island effect. More than 300 entries submitted from teams in 67 different countries offered cooling solutions for a city where summertime temperatures regularly exceed 100 degrees F for extended periods of time. Ten winning entries, announced in October 2020, each received $10,000 in prize money.  Their results were stunning, reports Arch Daily. A palm tree-inspired concept titled "The Oasys" combines structures shaped like 30-foot palm leaves with real trees. The towering leaves provide shade and are also solar-powered to run misters for pedestrians and landscaping below. A proposal, titled "Sa'af Al-Nakheel," envisions a multilayered courtyard featuring gardens, canopies and vertical walls interwoven with dried palm fronds to produce a dappled shade. The misters would also keep things comfortable through evaporative cooling. "Circadian Clouds" imagines a large, airborne shade structure that floats overhead. Made of dozens of individual geodesic globes, each would reflect sunlight by day, illuminate the space at night and together become a public art element.  But climate change and architecture can come together in less whimsical ways. Yale Environment 360 points to the many efforts around the world increasing the reflectivity of rooftops by painting them white or incorporating reflective materials into roofing materials. A new kind of coating developed by researchers at Columbia University contains tiny pores that reflect 96%-99% of all wavelengths of sunlight and, when applied to the exterior of buildings, cools them down, reports Smithsonian Magazine. Even a solution as simple as covering a building with ivy can lower local temperatures and relative humidity, according to House Beautiful.  In a world faced with the inevitable rise of global temperatures, the future of architecture demands innovations to cool cities. Looking to the past nature and to solutions already found in nature could give architects the tools and inspiration they need to turn down the heat. 

Climate Change and Architecture: Self-Cooled Buildings Lower Temps

Put on good boots and grab a shovel, because Arbor Day is coming up on April 27 this year in the United States and on other seasonally appropriate days around the world. Trees are important multipurpose natural resources and have provided fuel, food and shelter through the ages. The Guardian describes how England was almost deforested by the British navy in efforts to build battleships and defeat the Spanish Armada. Some cultures believe trees have mystical properties: According to Druidry, Celtic nations consider rowan trees to be sacred, offering protection from witches and dark magic. Clearly there's more to trees than meets the eye.   Why Trees Are Important   Trees are great indicators of climate change, and they are also great assets for dealing with its effects, according to Canopy. Their benefits include:    Photosynthesis, Carbon Capture and Oxygen   As plants, trees convert sunlight into energy by photosynthesis. This process captures carbon dioxide, creates oxygen and captures carbon as wood, according to the United Kingdom Forestry Commission. This respiratory process also filters particulate and volatile airborne pollution, Nature Blogs noted. Coastal blue carbon, comprising trees like mangroves in addition to salt water marsh ecosystems, traps a significant amount of atmospheric carbon, according to the National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration.   Trees are the New AC   Leafy canopies cool, and temperatures under shady canopies can be 7—15ÂºC (44—59ÂºF) lower than in unshaded areas, as described in The Conversation. Architects and town planners could leverage this benefit to maximize building cooling by planting more trees in urban areas.   Ground Control and Habitat   Tree roots spread widely outwards from the trunk and, in doing so, can stabilize the surrounding soil. Planting mangroves along vulnerable coastlines does more than soak up carbon — it can mitigate effects from storm surges as weather patterns become more violent, notes the Environmental Protection Agency. On slopes, planting suitable trees can prevent erosion from rain and floods.       The Advent of Arbor Day   According to Smithsonian Gardens, the first tree celebration started in 1594 in Mondoé±edo, Spain. Citizens realized the importance of trees and decided to plant more for the future.   The first modern Arbor Day in the U.S. arrived in 1872, when residents of Nebraska City set about repopulating the plains with trees. Connecticut tree fan Birdsey Northrop was such an enthusiast that he spread the word, convincing Japan, Canada and Europe to celebrate trees' importance, too.        Enable targeting cookies to view this content.       Arbor Day's Changing Message   Trees obviously enhance the appearance of a neighborhood, but while everyone loves green outdoor space, there's a lot more to trees than just landscaping. The yearly Arbor Day celebration now has a more serious message for why trees are important, and it has to do with climate change.   National parks are experiencing tree loss due to climate change, increased drought, wildfires and infestations, none of which is inevitable, according to The Conversation. Arbor Day is a chance to bring the focus back to our trees and the environment.   Trees are an effective way of dealing with climate change, mitigating its effects and, as noted above, helping reverse them through carbon capture. Greater numbers of mature trees can make a bigger difference — which is why Arbor Day is becoming more important each year.        What are you doing on April 27? Go on — get out there and plant a tree.   

Reflect on Why Trees Are Important This Arbor Day

People like recycling. Tossing an empty bottle or old mail into the proper bin feels like tidying up and doing your part for the environment. But much of the plastic in recycling bins is never actually recycled, even if it is clean and accepted by the local recycling center, according to NPR. One of the problems is that current methods for recycling plastic are very expensive and produce plastic of inferior quality compared with new plastic, which is cheap to make from oil. As a result, we are inundated with plastic waste.Plastic-Eating Enzyme Offers HopeA genetically engineered, plastic-eating enzyme may soon improve plastic recycling on an industrial scale, as the journal Nature reports. The naturally occurring version of this enzyme was discovered in 2016, in bacteria that were living near a plastic recycling facility in Japan, according to the journal Science. This PETase enzyme breaks down a commonly used plastic — called PET, or polyethylene terephthalate — into its component parts, which can then be reassembled into shiny new plastic.In order for enzymatic degradation of PET to be commercially viable, researchers needed to develop a faster version of PETase. Scientists at the University of Texas at Austin started with the known sequence and structure of naturally occurring PETase plus two genetically engineered versions that had shown improved performance. A machine learning model was trained on a dataset of 19,000 protein structures of similar size and then used to predict which mutations would improve stability and activity of this plastic-eating enzyme. A total of 159 mutation combinations were then produced in bacteria and tested, with a version containing 5 mutations giving the best results.Enzymatic degradation offers major advantages over the current methods for recycling plastic.Current Methods for Recycling PlasticThe current methods for recycling plastic involve collecting, transporting, sorting and processing the many different kinds of plastics that are used in everyday life. The process is so intensive that entire loads of plastic might be thrown out if they have been soiled with food or other liquids. In many parts of the United States, otherwise acceptable loads of plastic have been thrown into landfills or incinerated because there were no companies willing to process the material to try and make a profit. The supply of old plastic is much greater than the demand.Old plastic is processed through washing, shredding, further separation and melting to form plastic pellets, as Recycle Track Systems explains. These plastic pellets might be used to manufacture polyester clothing, carpet or flower pots, but they are rarely used to make new food containers. That's because plastic gets weaker every time it goes through this recycling process.Plastics are made of polymers — long chains created by repeating monomer blocks. Every time a piece of plastic is melted for recycling, the polymers get shorter and the plastic becomes weaker. Thus, plastic can only be "recycled" in this way once or twice before becoming trash. In contrast, glass and metal can be recycled again and again without any loss of quality.The new plastic-eating enzyme provides a way to break PET down to monomer blocks, which can then be used to make shiny new plastic.New Enzyme on the BlockThe new, fast-acting enzyme was named FAST-PETase and found to be highly effective at 50Â° C (122Â° F). This relatively low temperature translates into lower costs and less environmental impact for enzymatic degradation. FAST-PETase was tested on small samples of 51 different PET products, including packaging for food, beverages, medications, office supplies, household goods and cosmetics. All the samples were fully degraded within 1 week, with several requiring just 1 or 2 days. In contrast, untreated plastics may take hundreds of years to degrade.FAST-PETase was able to depolymerize a large plastic cake tray within 48 hours, and a new plastic item was successfully constructed from the waste. Degradation of an entire plastic water bottle was aided by melting the bottle first, followed by 2 weeks at 50Â° C.The Advantage of EnzymesCompared with chemical approaches, enzymes can work at lower temperatures and thus require less energy input. Enzymes are also non-toxic, biodegradable and can be produced in large quantities by microorganisms. Furthermore, enzymes act very specifically on one or a few substrates, making them ideal for mixed waste streams. Examples might include plastics contaminated with food, fabrics that are a mix of cotton and polyester and packaging that includes layers of different materials (such as a potato chip bag with plastic and aluminum).Obvious applications for FAST-PETase include the recycling of consumer plastics, reducing industrial waste and cleaning up landfills. The study authors are also looking toward environmental remediation.Our Plastic MessAccording to a study in Science Advances, the world was producing 200 times more plastic in 2015 than it did in the 1950s. Around 9% of that plastic has been recycled, 12% has been incinerated, and 79% has accumulated in landfills or the natural environment. As Cas — a division of the American Chemical Society — describes, over 350 million tons of plastic are being produced each year, including over 50 million tons of PET. Over 8 million tons of plastic end up in the ocean each year and are causing real harm to marine life. These plastics break into microplastics that have been detected in every corner of the world, from the highest peak on land to the deepest trench in the ocean.While much needs to be done to clean up the mess we've made, a plastic-eating enzyme that allows for the endless recycling of plastic can be used to take a bite out of the problem.Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

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