Mega-blockbuster "Jurassic Park" gave us the iconic image of Brachiosaurus striding across fertile plains, head held high and body devoid of feathers. Instead, it had the smooth reptilian look commonly associated with Earth's once-dominant lifeforms. But evolving fossil research suggests that dinosaur skin wasn't so much flat as it was feathered — which opens the door to a prehistoric world full of fuzzy, feathery dino families that challenge our notion of the familiar. Did dinosaurs have feathers? Yes, but fossil finds still paint a fuzzy picture of how far this feathered framework fanned out. Bird Is the Word The idea of feathered dinosaurs isn't new — in the 1990s, fossils from China made it abundantly clear that dinosaurs were the ancestors of modern-day birds and shared their propensity for physical featheration. But this initial group of fuzzy fossils was confined to therapods or "raptor" dinosaurs, such as the velociraptor, which offered a close evolutionary link to our modern avians. However, according to a National Geographic piece from 2014, fossil discoveries in Siberia showcased a new species, Kulindadromeus zabaikalicus, which was similarly feathered but from a different family: the two-legged, beaked runner "ornithischian" group. These 4.5-foot-long speedsters sported thin feathers that likely evolved from scales. In fact, evidence of both scales and feathers were found in the fossils. While this dino couldn't fly, and it's not known exactly what the feathers were for (though one potential explanation is insulation), its discovery gave rise to the notion that almost all dinosaurs shared a common, feathered ancestor. Hit the Ground Running With the direct ancestors and running cousins of the feathered family, it was only a matter of time until flight-capable creatures also got their moment in the feather fossil spotlight. As Discover notes, work from 2018 found evidence of "novel filaments" on flying pterosaurs — considered "cousins" of the more familiar dinosaurs — suggesting they were at the very least fuzzy and potentially feathered. Analysis of well-preserved pterosaur fossils had already revealed hollow filaments known as "pycnofibers," indicating they had some type of furry covering. But the discovery of additional pycnofiber types in other pterosaur species demonstrated a branched structure type that only occurred on the creatures' wing membranes, which suggests that at least some pterosaurs had more familiar feather forms. However, debate remains about the origin of feathers across multiple evolutionary groups. Some scientists suggest that dinosaurs and pterosaurs shared a common, feathered progenitor and took their cue from the anatomy of this ancestor, while others argue that these two groups developed feathers independently. Regardless of their converged or parallel past, the fact remains: Feathers are everywhere. Facing the Feather Facts But wait! Before we get too far off the ground, it's worth noting that feather fossil frameworks take us only so far. According to an analysis of all known dinosaur skin specimens by Professor Paul Barnett of the Natural History Museum (NHM), it's unlikely that feathers fanned out particularly far from theropods, ornithomimosaurs and pterosaurs — creatures that all shared bird-like characteristics. Dinosaurs such as the horned ceratopsian Triceratops, meanwhile, were almost certainly scaly. Solving the scale-or-feather puzzle is much like dealing with the dino dental debate — it all comes down to accurately identifying examples of both in fossils of varying quality and age. As the NHM notes, true features must be made of beta-keratin, must display a branching structure and must originate from a follicle. Not surprisingly, this isn't an easy task when dealing with multi-million-year-old skin samples. Barnett puts it simply, "If we look at the evidence that we do have, and we combine that with evolutionary trees, what we find is that there is no evidence for the first dinosaurs being feathered." Instead, he suggests that all dinosaurs may have had the genetic potential to produce feathers — but not all had the predisposition. Discovering why — and how — specific species sprouted feathers offers an entirely new and engaging branch of study. Did dinosaurs have feathers? Affirmative. Did all dinosaurs have feathers? Fossil findings suggest this is a flight of fancy.

Did Dinosaurs Have Feathers? Fossils Fuel Fuzz-First Frameworks

Hearing the name "Stonehenge" creates a common set of mental images featuring massive and monolithic minerals towering above Salisbury skies. It also raises a host of questions around who built the structure, why and how they accomplished such a feat. Now, researchers from the University of Salford have added their own audio appellation: What did Stonehenge sound like? Henge-ing Your Bets Despite its place in human history and regular appearance in television, movies and novels, the history of this henge — a circular ditch and bank — aren't exactly set in stone. While it's likely the site was used as a burial ground and took millennia to fully construct, the mandate and methodology behind this prodigious project remain shrouded in myth. Consider the second phase of the building process, which historians typically date to around 2,800 BCE. Approximately 80 bluestones were lifted into standing positions and placed in a circular formation. Not only were these stones massive, but they were also likely located at least 200 miles from the Stonehenge landscape, meaning ancient builders needed to both ship and stand these stones without the aid of any modern technology — including the wheel. The site's purpose is also uncertain. Many scholars believe it may have been used as a ceremonial site or pilgrimage destination, while other researchers suggest it functioned as an astronomical calendar. More recent discoveries also indicate its potential as a place of healing. Now, there's a new entry making noise in the field of Stonehenge science: acoustic archaeology. Acoustic Advantages: The Science of Sound As Ars Technica notes, acoustic archaeology — also called archaeoacoustics — focuses on the role of sound during historical events or in specific locations. For example, acoustic archeologists have examined the role of "acoustic shadows" in the loss of critical Civil War battles and the sound of a chirping bird produced when visitors clap their hands at the bottom of the Mayan Temple of Kukulkan at Chichen Itza. The Stonehenge landscape has long been known for strange sounds. For example, the arrangement of stones creates peculiar echoes and produces humming noises in strong winds. Acoustical engineer Trevor Cox and his team at the University of Salford decided to explore these auditory oddities further by creating "Stonehenge Lego," a 1/12 scale model made of 3D-printed and painted blocks standing in for the real standing stones, which produced a structural soundscape capable of both amplifying speech and enhancing music. Cox and his team explain, "It seems improbable that sound was a primary driver in the design and arrangement of the stones at Stonehenge," but the acoustical advantages would certainly have garnered attention. Archeologist Timothy Darvill of Bournemouth University also notes that these structural sounds "must have been one of the fundamental experiences of Stonehenge." Can You Hear Me Now? Work by the University of Salford team turned up two salient soundscape insights: Audio signals inside the stone circle were amplified, while those outside were dampened. As a result, participants within the monument could better hear music or speaking, while those passing by were largely unable to listen in. To measure the acoustic properties of a structure, acousticians use what's known as "impulse responses" — the time between initial sound input (impulse) and any sound reflections (response) off any surfaces. For the Stonehenge Lego model, Cox and his team used four-directional speakers in five locations producing sounds at twelve times normal frequency to account for the 1/12 structure scale. They found that sound inside the circle reverberated for at least 0.6 seconds in most cases and up to 0.8 seconds for lower-frequency impulses. For comparison, larger spaces such as cathedrals may have reverb times up to 8 seconds, while your average living room comes in at around 0.4 seconds, making the 0.6-0.8 second range ideal to slightly amplify sound without causing significant interference or echo. Rock n' Role Much like the pyramids, the stones of Salisbury Plain stand as a testament to human ingenuity and engineering— and provide an endless source of speculation for historians, astronomers and archaeoacoustic adherents alike. Yet, while the exact role of this mammoth monolith may never be fully revealed, one thing is certain: There's beauty in the sound of science.

Stonehenge Sound Science Offers Acoustic Addition to Monumental Methodology

On March 14th, 2018, the world lost one its most innovative and forward-thinking minds: Dr. Stephen Hawking. The famed physicist was known for his ability to translate complex theoretical concepts into layman's terms, as well as for his perseverance in the face of degenerative amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS. Here's a look at the Stephen Hawking legacy: His work on understanding the beginnings of the universe, the behavior of black holes and what might exist beyond infinity. Origin Story Like most stories in modern physics, this one starts with Einstein. Specifically, Hawking studied Einstein's notion of singularities. General relativity suggests the existence of these singularities — also known as black holes — occur when massive objects, such as stars, collapse under their own weight and curve spacetime so severely that even light can't escape, according to the BBC. In 1939, Robert Oppenheimer wrote a paper describing these singularities, but his ideas were disregarded because most physicists found them at odds with classical notions of universal laws. In 1959, Hawking entered the picture, coauthoring a paper with Roger Penrose on the black hole theory that not only bolstered the evidence for singularities but also argued that the much-debated Big Bang theory of the universe was correct: Our universe began as a kind of black hole in reverse, starting from an immeasurably small singularity and exploding outward. The paper gained critical acclaim, lent credence to the Big Bang theory and furthered Hawking's exploration of the black hole theory, said the BBC. Back to Black Hawking's greatest contributions to physics vary depending on who you ask. Query an average person on the street and chances are they know exactly who you're talking about — the scientist in the wheelchair who wrote "that book." That book is "A Brief History of Time," published in 1988 and immensely popular among anyone curious about the beginnings of the universe and the potential for universal laws. According to the International Business Times, despite its status as a best-seller, readers only finish approximately 7 percent of the book. Among the scientific community, meanwhile, understanding the Stephen Hawking legacy starts with two words: Hawking radiation. As noted by Vox, Hawking's work on black holes confirmed that nothing — not even light — could escape being pulled into the gravity vortex. But he also realized that just like everything else in the universe, black holes must also increase in entropy over time. Entropy implies temperature, which means black holes had to be "losing" something that would generate heat. By combining the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, Hawking proposed that particle and antiparticle pairs pop up continually in black holes, canceling one another out and splitting apart while also detracting from the black hole's mass, according to Vox. While Hawking radiation has not yet been detected, the general scientific community has accepted this theory. Stephen Hawking's Legacy In addition to his brilliant theories, Hawking leaves behind new questions for the next generation of scientists. As noted by Gizmodo, Hawking's most recent paper,"A Smooth Exit From Inflation," states that while the expansion rate of our universe suggests the existence of a "multiverse" where other universes and alternate physical laws are possible, the possibilities aren't infinite. Instead, they're governed by mathematical laws and could potentially be detected in the background radiation of our universe. Not surprisingly, both of these theories have drawn praise, criticism and even more questions. That's the true Stephen Hawking legacy: The intersection of science-for-the-people and revolutionary theory to provoke discussion of — as one of Hawking's favorite authors succinctly put it — "life, the universe and everything."

The Stephen Hawking Legacy: From Black Holes to the Big Bang

The rock band or the doomed blimp? Hydrogen explosions and catchy melodic hooks have hijacked our thinking about the term "Zeppelin." Visceral television coverage of the Hindenburg disaster — and its scale — have largely overwritten the more storied tales of these luxurious sky kings. Consider the LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin: 90 years ago, this lighter-than-air craft made history with the first passenger-carrying flight around the globe and pumped up worldwide interest.  Building a Better Zeppelin Airship  Built by Luftschiffbau Zeppelin and completed in 1928, the LZ 127 was named after airship pioneer Count (Graf) Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Designed using the basic plan of the LZ 126 — which was supplied to the United States and commissioned the USS Los Angeles as war reparations — the LZ 127 was also built using triangular duralumin girders and rings spaced 15 meters apart. When completed, the craft was 776 feet long and 110 feet high, making it the largest airship in the world.  As noted by Airships.net, size was the priority: The long, thin hull of the LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin was not aerodynamically ideal and was subject to bending stress. Designers wanted to maximize the ship's fuel-carrying capacity and would have likely made the Zeppelin even larger if they weren't constrained by the construction shed at Friedrichschafen — which had interior dimensions of 787 feet long and 115 feet high.  This Zeppelin airship also used a new type of fuel for its combustion engines, called "Blau gas" after its inventor. With a similar weight to air, burning Blau gas meant airship personnel didn't have to account for the loss in weight as heavier-than-air fuel burned, which ordinarily necessitated the regular venting (and therefore loss) of lifting gas. When completed, the LZ 127 was capable of reaching altitudes of up to 6,000 feet and speeds of 72 miles-per-hour.  Grafs Gone (World)Wide  Once cleared for active service the Graf Zeppelin began making history; on Oct. 11, 1928, it completed the first commercial passenger flight across the Atlantic in 111 hours and 44 minutes. And in 1929, the LZ 127 conquered another first: A worldwide journey with passengers on board. Starting and ending in Lakehurst, New Jersey, the worldwide trip took just 12 days and 11 minutes of flying time. Refueling was accomplished at pre-planned landings along the way, such as Friedrichschafen and Tokyo.  But things didn't always go as planned. In Los Angeles, captain Hugo Eckener was forced to land during a temperature inversion, which required the ship to vent large quantities of hydrogen that couldn't be immediately replaced. As a result, the craft was much heavier than usual on takeoff and nearly crashed into a string of power lines.  The LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin didn't stop there — in July 1931 the ship made a trip to the North Pole, allowing scientists to photograph unmapped Arctic regions, conduct meteorological observations and measure magnetic field variations. And until 1937 — the Hindenburg disaster — the LZ 127 flew regular flights from Germany to South America. During its lifetime, the Zeppelin airship made nearly 600 trips and flew more than a million miles.  Catching the Fever  What Zeppelins lacked in sleek aerodynamics and simplicity of use, they made up for in stability of flight, comfort and the ability to carry large volumes of cargo, crew and passengers around the world. So it's no surprise that the massive LZ 127 — effectively a proof-of-concept for its size and the use of Blau gas — captured public interest. Extensive documentation of its globe-trotting flight only increased this Zeppelin affection, especially since Captain Eckener had a flair for the dramatic, timing his flight through San Francisco's Golden Gate with the sun setting behind the ship. As Eckener put it: "When for the first time in world history an airship flies across the Pacific, should it not arrive at sunset over the Golden Gate?"  Despite the LZ 127's innovative design and historic accomplishments, however, the use of hydrogen as lifting gas meant it was only a matter of time before leaky balloons and errant sparks caused a serious problem. On May 6, 1937, the Hindenburg exploded over Manchester Township, and on June 18 of that same year, the LZ 127 had her farewell flight — from Friedrichshafen to Frankfurt — until being stripped for parts by the Luftwaffe in 1940.  Ballooning Interest  Airships had a simple problem: Hydrogen is highly flammable and dangerously explosive under pressure.  But there's a (relatively) easy fix — helium. With 92% of hydrogen's lifting power and none of the flammability, this noble gas is the perfect alternative. In the 1930s, however, helium supply was largely controlled by the U.S. and sharing it with the Germans wasn't seen as strategically sound. Today, however, helium isn't so heavily regulated, making it the go-to lifting gas for next-gen Zeppelins.  The result? Commercial and consumer interest in airships is on the rise. As noted by CNN, Goodyear recently updated its fleet with their "NT" models, which come complete with fly-by-wire steering, more comfortable seats and — finally — a lavatory. And Luftschiffbau Zeppelin itself is back in the airship business, running 12 routes across Germany and Switzerland for 21,000 tourists every year. Still, CEO Michael Schieschke gets asked the same question every day: Do the airships still use hydrogen, and will helium burn? Despite the ongoing concern, he believes that "most of the public understands that these aircraft are safe now."  In fact, helium-powered craft align extremely well with current economic conditions: Zeppelins can make long flights for low cost, are virtually noiseless, produce limited emissions and can lift massive amounts of cargo. From both environmental stewardship and expenditure management perspectives, the rigid airship renaissance makes sense.  We Have Liftoff  Zeppelin airships represented a breakthrough in aeronautic technologies, introducing comfort and control never before seen in airborne vehicles. The LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin marked the pinnacle of hydrogen-powered travel, breaking transatlantic, global and even polar records during its nine-year service. Ninety years later, new corporate investment is driving the development of Zeppelin features and designs — much like the burgeoning commercialization of space flight, renewed private-sector commitments offer the potential for both travel at scale and scientific discovery. 

The Legacy of Zeppelin Airship Innovation

Do mermaids exist? Sadly, we can definitely say no, they do not. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) puts it simply: "No evidence of aquatic humanoids has ever been found." Unsurprisingly, however, this hasn't stopped the search for proof of mermaids that could upend the scientific status quo. Have merfolk fanatics had any luck? Not a bit. Is it interesting to see what they've come up with? Absolutely. The Mermaid Myth Myths surrounding mermaids, and to a lesser extent mermen, have existed for centuries. It makes sense, as the sea is both a mysterious force and an essential part of life for many people. Indeed, for hundreds of years sea travel was the only option for inter-ocean transport. It also stands to reason that sailors and people living on shorelines sometimes saw things they couldn't explain, and many believed what they were seeing took the form of a half-human, half-fish creature. Of course, what exactly a mermaid looks like depends on your source material. In Europe and North America, the top half of a mermaid's body resembles that of a human woman, while the bottom is a fishtail. In Scottish folklore, mermaids achieved their underwater ability by wearing the skin of a fish, and if they lost this skin while on land, they wouldn't be able to return. Sailors often associated mermaids with sirens who lured ships off course and their crews to rocky deaths on shoals or reefs. In the collection of Middle Eastern folktales known as One Thousand and One Nights, mermaids have faces and hair like women and tails like fish, but their hands and feet are inside their bellies. Head to Japan and you'll hear tales of the ningyo, a monkey-fish hybrid that lives in the sea. Supposedly, the creature came into being when a fisherman trespassed into protected waters and was cursed to wander the ocean as a monkey-fish mix. On his deathbed, he appeared to Prince Shotoku and asked the prince to forgive him for his crimes and build a temple to display his remains as a reminder of the sanctity of life — and not to trespass. Thanks to American and European influence, Japanese conceptions of merfolk have slowly shifted to the more familiar human-fish hybrid. Of Monkeys and Merfolk Earlier this year, scientists got the chance to examine one of these ningyo up close and in person after it was found inside a safe in an Okayama Prefecture temple. The effort began with Hiroshi Kinoshita, a board member of the Okayama Folklore Society. After coming across a picture of mummified ningyo remains in a book about mythical creatures, he was able to track the body back to the temple, where it was worshiped as an omen of good health. Notes left inside the mummy's original box indicate that the creature was supposedly caught in the mid-18th century, sold to an affluent family, and eventually passed on to the temple. In February 2022, the temple priests agreed to let scientists examine the body using a CT scan and take DNA samples to evaluate its genetic makeup. While those results haven't yet been released, there's a likely explanation: Someone may have grafted the head and torso of a monkey onto the tail of a fish and then added embellishments of human hair and nails. This isn't the first "mermaid" that's been found in Japan. Ningyo are worshiped at several other temples across the country, and during the early years of European travelers visiting Japan, fake mermaids were sold to curious Western tourists who were unfamiliar with the legend. Making a Mermaid Where science says no, human ingenuity bridges the gap. In Weeki Wachee Springs State park, there's a year-round show featuring women dressed as mermaids who swim through "a mysterious blue underwater world of mermaids, manatees, turtles, and bubbles." Earlier this year, Discovery Channel's Animal Planet aired a mermaid special that combines science fiction with some real events to make the case for mermaids. Paired with a somber, scientific tone, the special generated enough interest that NOAA received questions about the potential existence of mermaids and issued a formal statement regarding the lack of evidence to suggest that they are real. Do mermaids exist? Put simply, there is no proof of mermaids being real, and the same goes for monkey-sea creature hybrids. Nonetheless, the fascination with mermaids isn't going under. Rather, folks who are passionate about ocean people are creating their own versions of what mermaids might look like and exploring new ways of searching for these elusive sea sirens. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Proof of Mermaids? Science Tells the Tail

As visual representations of scientific concepts go, the periodic table is hard to beat. It's easily recognizable, relatively simple to understand and for the last 150 years has acted as a reliable roadmap to help chemists uncover new elements and expand the sum of human knowledge. The American Chemical Society (ACS) described it as "perhaps as foundational to chemistry as the discovery of DNA has been to biology." But Dmitri Mendeleev's elemental Excel spreadsheet has also become a kind of cultural touchstone. Tables of every size and shape are easily available. Want a colored-coded representation of key elemental groups? No problem. Need a dog-themed periodic table of the EleMUTTS? Of course! Want to learn the periodic table through a song set to the tune of Jacques Offenbach's "Infernal Galop"? Of course you do. It's no surprise, then, that the United Nations decided the table's sesquicentennial was worth recognizing: According to the official UNESCO website, 2019 is the International Year of the Periodic Table. So let's dive in — how did Mendeleev develop his table? How well does it stand up under pressure? And what happens when the table's not big enough for all the elements at the party? Let's Table This Discussion As noted by the Royal Society of Chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev wasn't the first scientist who attempted to group the elements into some type of easily recognizable framework. In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier classified elements by their properties (gases, metals, non-metals and earths). In 1865, John Newlands noticed similarities in elements of atomic weights that differed by seven. He called it the "Law of Octaves," later known as the "Periodic Law." Mendeleev noticed that certain types of elements regularly reoccurred when elements were arranged according to atomic weight — reactive non-metals were directly followed by light reactive metals and less reactive light metals. He wasn't afraid to move elements around the table based on their behavior, says the Royal Society of Chemistry. This ran counter to the notion that elements should be ordered by atomic weight, but it produced better far results. For example, nickel is lighter than cobalt but better aligns with palladium — located in the next row down — than rhodium. Choosing action over atomic weight made Mendeleev's table much more accurate, especially after protons were discovered; when classified according the number of protons in the nucleus, Mendeleev's table was spot-on, according to the Royal Society of Chemistry. The table's biggest benefit was predictability. Elements directly above or below each other in columns — or "groups" — share similar characteristics. For example, the alkali metals of the first column "usually carry a +1 charge in reactions, react vigorously with water, and combine readily with nonmetals," as noted by ThoughtCo. Those in the same row — or "period" — share the highest unexcited electron energy level. The table helped paved the way for a better understanding of chemical reactions work, predict outcomes when combining elements of differing groups or periods, and helped pave the way to discover new elements. Filling In the Gaps Along with his Law of Octaves, John Newlands also created a version of the periodic table. The problem? Keeping the pattern meant cramming multiple elements into the same space and hoping for the best. Needless to say, the Chemical Society was not impressed. Mendeleev, meanwhile, knew he didn't have all the answers. So whenever he came across a potential gap in his table, he left it alone. What's more, he predicted that new elements would be found to close these gaps — and sure enough, they were. He knew there should be an element after aluminum (which he called "eka-aluminium") but since no known elements had the right properties, he left the space blank. He also predicted the properties of eka-aluminium, which included an atomic weight of around 68, a solid density of 6.0 grams per centimeter cubed and a valency of three. In 1875, Paul-é‰mile Lecoq de Boisbaudran discovered gallium, which had an atomic weight of 69.72, a density of 5.9 grams per centimeter cubed and a valency of three — just as Mendeleev predicted, says the Royal Society of Chemistry. Also of note was the discovery of the noble gases by William Ramsay. While some saw them as contradictions to Mendeleev's work, further research found their natural home as the final group on the periodic table. What's Next for the Nature of the Universe? Chemists have been regularly adding new elements to the table. As noted by JSTOR Daily, the table currently caps out at element 118 — oganesson — a noble gas that has a half-life of just 0.89 milliseconds. Work is already underway to find elements 119 and 120 but as oganesson's short-lived existence makes clear, this isn't an easy task. Starting with element 105, rutherfordium, artificial preparation is required and researchers have very little time to observe any inherent properties before decay occurs. There are predictions that an "island of stability" will be found — a group of elements with exceptionally stable nuclei because their nuclear shells are filled with the "magic number" of protons or neutrons. According to the JSTOR piece, 184 neutrons is the next predicted magic number. New elements may also be found using technologies from other disciplines, such as the soon-to-launch James Webb telescope, which will observe and help analyze distant gas clouds. Just because we can't produce super-heavy, super-stable elements here on Earth, that doesn't mean some ancient gas cloud isn't out there doing great work. And while we're at it, let's go really far out on a scientific limb: According to Phys.org, a new paper suggests that once elements chunk their way up over an atomic weight of 300, the rules of normal matter may break down. Here's the idea: Normal, or baryonic, matter is made of protons and neutrons that contain bound quark triplets. Past 300, there's speculation that elements may be composed of "freely flowing 'up' and 'down' quarks" that aren't bound into triplets. This up down quark matter (udQM) would be stable for super-heavy elements beyond the end of the periodic table and could exist on a "continent" — not just an island! — of stability. Don't Mendeleev Me Here Mendeleev's work was a critical jumping-off point for the advancement of chemistry, technology and scientific speculation. As our brief history of the periodic table shows, however, this isn't a find-and-forget situation: There's always more room for elements left off the first draft (and even some that might be too big for our current table). Along with recognition through 2019's International Year of the Periodic Table, Mendeleev himself was immortalized in Element 101: a metallic radioactive transuranic element in the actinide series that was discovered in 1955 and named mendelevium in honor of his work.

It's Elementary: A Brief History of the Periodic Table

This Thanksgiving, whether you're making savory dinner rolls or sweet apple pie, the success of your meal will depend on the science of baking. Baking is both an art and a science. Bakers can experiment with flavors and alternative ingredients, but most of your favorite Thanksgiving baked goods start with the same basic formula. As science enthusiasts, there's no better way to celebrate Thanksgiving than to break down the chemical and molecular interactions behind our favorite desserts. Solid Flour provides the basic structure for everything from the crustiest French bread to the puffiest pastry. It's made of starches and protein called gluten. When you mix flour and water together, the proteins combine to form an elastic web called a gluten network. This gluten web traps air bubbles, while the starch sets as it heats to add support to the structure, according to The Spruce Eats. Different recipes call for different types of flour because of the protein content. Bread flour, for example, has a higher protein content, which gives it a strong gluten network and sturdy structure. Cake flour has lower protein content, which produces a weaker gluten network and fluffier end product, according to kitchn. While gluten networks are helpful for providing structure, too much gluten formation can give your baked goods a tough texture. Mixing dough helps these networks form, which is why we knead bread dough (to make it strong and stretchy) and avoid overmixing cakes, cookies and quick breads like banana breads. Shortening ingredients such as butter, oils and fats help limit gluten formation, because fat repels the water that gluten networks require. When you cut butter into flour, for example, it coats the flour and repels the water-based ingredients that you'll add next. This avoids activating too many proteins at once, shortening the gluten formation so that you end up with softer, more tender pastries. According to the Spruce Eats, fat also helps make cake fluffy. When you cream sugar and butter, the mixing process creates small pockets of air where the sharp edges of the sugar crystals interact with the fat. Liquid Water allows ingredients such as yeast or baking soda to do their jobs. It also hydrates gluten so that the dough can take shape. Eggs serve several purposes in baking, such as binding the other ingredients together and providing structure since they start as liquid but become more solid when they are heated. Some recipes call for separating the yolk from the white because they each have different properties. The yolks are filled with nutrients and fat, which adds to the pastry's flavor and texture. Yolks contain an emulsifier called lecithin that brings water-based liquids and oil together, even though they usually repel each other. This process helps mix the ingredients together so that they are distributed evenly throughout the batter. It's important to set the oven to the correct temperature because yolk proteins unfold and gel together when heated. When whipped, the water and protein in egg whites incorporates air bubbles that make a foam to lift dough and give it a fluffy, delicate texture. When whipped egg whites are heated in an oven, the air inside them will expand, further rising the dough, according to kitchn. Gas Leavening, or making the dough rise, is an essential aspect of the science of baking. When liquid ingredients are heated in the oven, they emit some steam that helps lift the dough. Typically, though, a specific leavening ingredient such as yeast or baking soda will be added to baked goods. This is where you must measure ingredients as precise as a chemist measuring materials for a science experiment. Too much leavening agent will make the bubbles so big that they'll pop and leave you with a flat baked good, according to The Spruce Eats. On the other hand, if you don't add enough leavening agents, you'll end up with a dense end product. A single-celled fungus called yeast is the classic leavening ingredient. It is such an ancient pantry staple that in August 2019, scientists collected 4,500-year-old yeast from ancient Egyptian pottery. Smithsonian reports that the scientists used the ancient yeast to bake a loaf of bread. Yeast works by absorbing sugar and excreting carbon dioxide gas, which makes the dough rise according to Fine Cooking. Yeast contributes to the bread's flavor, because during the fermentation process, yeast breaks down large starch molecules into smaller, flavorful simple sugars. Yeast helps develop the gluten network and strengthen the dough. When yeast releases gas into the dough, protein and water molecules are pushed together, which, just like kneading the dough, gives them another opportunity to form gluten. While yeast requires patience, baking powder works instantly. Baking powder contains a dry acid and baking soda, which is also known as sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). According to ThoughtCo., baking soda (a salt) reacts with acidic ingredients and heat, which creates carbon dioxide as a byproduct. As soon as baking soda touches a water-based ingredient (milk, eggs, etc.), a chemical reaction occurs and gas bubbles start to release. This is why it's important to avoid overmixing or leaving the batter out of the oven for too long. When you bite into your Thanksgiving baked goods, think about the chemical and molecular interactions that make them so delicious. The aroma, color, flavor and texture all start at the molecular level. Recipes should be followed in order, just like you would follow the procedure of a science experiment. If you skip steps or go out of order, you'll miss out on essential chemical reactions. This could leave you with deflated bread or dense muffins. A perfectly browned pie crust doesn't happen by luck — it's the science of baking. 

Breaking Down the Science of Baking

Key Takeaways  Chernobyl was the site of the largest nuclear accident in history. Human error led to reactor breakdown and release of radiation. Insight gained from the disaster, which highlighted gaps in protocols and operating systems, led to global efforts and collaboration for nuclear safety.The largest nuclear accident in history initially unfolded in near silence. Explosions and a series of fires sent radioactive materials from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant into the atmosphere of Ukraine — but government officials of the Soviet Union remained largely quiet.More than 30 years later, the causes and consequences of this event are well-known. Those mistakes, alongside the stories of victims, serve as an international blueprint for preventing nuclear disasters. Although circumstances unique to the former Soviet Union caused the accident, the literal and figurative fallout prompted the world to collectively enhance nuclear safety and strive to never repeat the errors and obstinacy that killed 30 people and put the lives of thousands at risk from radiation exposure.Flaws and FailuresAs the recent HBO historical drama series "Chernobyl" and countless books, documentaries and scientific articles have illustrated, the disaster could have been mitigated, if not prevented. Lack of training, systematic mismanagement, operator error and structural flaws triggered the disaster, while government inaction exacerbated the tragedy by delaying the evacuation of nearby residents. Leading into the evening of April 26, 1986, the residents of Pripyat, Ukraine, and most of the employees of the nuclear plant had no idea that the potent mix of human misjudgment and mechanical defects would put them in harm's way.Of the many source materials that detail the disaster, a recap by the World Nuclear Association clearly describes what happened. In short, a defective reactor design, coupled with inadequately trained personnel, decimated the power plant's fourth reactor. What was a training exercise to test the reactor during a power outage instead led to a power surge and the explosions, exposing the nuclear core and sending radioactive materials into the atmosphere. The nearby city of Pripyat wasn't evacuated until nearly two days later and the Soviet government didn't publicly acknowledge the disaster until April 28.Acknowledgment and ChangeChernobyl revealed several gaps in nuclear safety, not just at the power plant but worldwide.First, the disaster uncovered how Russia's nuclear power plants were unlike any others in the world. According to the Nuclear Energy Institute, the power station used a type of reactor, RBMK, that wasn't built anywhere else because of its inherent instability, particularly on start up and shutdown. Operators at the plant conducted their power test unaware that RBMK reactors sometimes increased power. As the fourth reactor overheated, the power soared, accelerating the heating of the steam that drives power generation and also breaking fuel-packed pressure tubes. Also, whereas nuclear reactors in the U.S. rely on water as a cooling mechanism to keep steam generation in check, an RBMK reactor relied on graphite and water. At the plant, graphite and fuel mixed, starting the fires and causing the release of radioactivity, according to World Nuclear Association.After Chernobyl, it became apparent that the world lacked shared norms on nuclear safety. Countries and governments acted on their own. The accident showed a "need for a collective international focus on [nuclear] safety," according to an International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) report on international law.The world responded, a reaction that included a new emphasis on safety by the countries of the former Soviet Union in preventing another nuclear disaster. As the World Nuclear Association outlines, nuclear engineers from those Soviet countries have learned from on-site visits to nuclear power plants in the Western world. Also, the World Association of Nuclear Operators formed in 1989, connecting nuclear power plant operators in more than 30 countries, while the IAEA reviews safety at still-operative Soviet reactors. Because of this openness and cooperation, the remaining RBMK reactors no longer have the deficiencies that doomed Chernobyl. And it's largely assumed the governments of those former Soviet countries will act in a more transparent and urgent manner should there ever be an accident.But thanks to a stronger emphasis on safety, a repeat of the tragedy is all but impossible, a German nuclear safety agency declared in 1996.New Life and TouristsThree decades later, the public health catastrophe that many experts had predicted hasn't — at least not yet — materialized. Two plant workers died on the night of the explosion and an additional 28 employees and firefighters died weeks later from acute radiation poisoning. Since then, the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) said that while no one at a close distance from the plant suffered acute radiation, thyroid cancers found in patients were probably the cause of radioactive fallout. Aside from that finding, "the great majority of the population is not likely to experience serious health consequences as a result of radiation from the Chernobyl accident," UNSCEAR said.Meanwhile, the plant itself is now enclosed in concrete, and the 2,000-mile radius around the site of the largest nuclear disaster is largely devoid of people. More than 300,000 residents had to leave the area. Yet in Belarus, thousands of people have returned to their homes in areas that were contaminated, with experts saying it was safe for them to eat foods grown there.In the area closest to the power plant, known as the Exclusion Zone, wildlife appears to be diseased and there are lower rates of beneficial bacteria, according to National Geographic. Still, because of the lack of a human footprint, some species have expanded. And in a sign that all is not lost, some areas are safe enough to allow "nuclear tourists."We are committed to protecting our world. Learn how Northrop Grumman is actively working to minimize the environmental footprint of our operations.

The Lessons of Chernobyl Are Preventing Nuclear Disasters

Made up of more than 10,000,000 people across 770,000 square miles, the Incan (also Inca or Inka) Empire of pre-Columbian America was notable for its long-lasting cultural impact on South American civilization, along with a host of innovations across agriculture, architecture and record-keeping.  However, like other empires quick to expand across conquered territory, the Inca faced a challenge: ensuring the safe movement of people and goods within its borders. Their solution? The Inca road system or "Qhapaq é‘an" — a network of interconnected highways and bridges that spanned nearly 25,000 miles and made its way through everything from humid jungles to snowy mountain peaks and arid deserts. Even more impressive? This Andean road system was built without the aid of wheeled carts or iron tools, and yet much of it remains to this day.  So, let's explore this ancient road system with a look at its role in Incan operations, the effort undertaken to build and maintain this navigation network, how Incan engineers overcome critical landscape challenges and how this pre-Columbian construction marvel continues to impact South American culture.  Qhapaq é‘an: The Arteries of an Empire  While "all roads lead to Rome" is a European conceit, the Inca Empire had their own version: All roads of the Qhapaq é‘an lead to the capital of Cuzco. From the city, four main highways branched out: Chinchaysuyu (north), Collasuyu (south), Antisuyu (east), and Cuntisuyu (west). Each led to a quarter of the Empire. The structure makes sense; not only does it conform to the four cardinal compass directions, but it also lines up with the Incan name for their empire, Tawantinsuyo, which means "Land of the Four Quarters" or "The Four Parts Together."  With ten million people speaking at least 30 different languages — but just 40,000 Incas in charge of running the empire — this road system wasn't just for show. While part of the project stemmed from the need for physical reminders of Incan leadership in conquered territories, the road's primary purpose was much more practical: empowering easy movement. In effect, these Inca roads were the arteries of the empire, allowing its lifeblood — people and goods — to travel quickly and safely from place to place. Without the Herculean effort undertaken by Inca builders, even the best-laid administrative plans would quickly come to naught; reliable roadways showcased both strength and sustainability.  But this raises a question: How did Incan engineers manage to construct this continent-spanning marvel without the aid of iron tools, pack animals or carts?  Building the Inca Road System  The Qhapaq é‘an is now a UNESCO World Heritage site, and deservedly so. Also called the "Royal Road" or "Main Andean Road," it not only included four main highways but also multiple smaller routes connecting cities and towns all along the west coast of South America. While some of the highways used preexisting routes built by other cultures in the area, Inca Empire engineers weren't afraid to embrace the landscape and take on the challenge of creating new routes that snake through mountain passes or across blazing-hot deserts.  According to the Ancient History Encyclopedia, the Incans had only wooden, stone and bronze tools and lacked the advantages of modern surveying equipment to mark distances or account for variances in local terrain. While most road surfaces were constructed using packed sand, earth or grass, they varied in width from three to twelve feet — and some main highways were over 40 feet wide. In many cases, builders used small stone walls to mark road edges, while regular drains and culverts were used to divert water off or under main routes. As the journal Archaeologies reports, this roadway system also included structures placed at regular intervals called "tampus," which served as lodging facilities for travelers and included space to store goods or materials being transported. In addition, major highways often included stone markers to indicate distance traveled in "topo," an Incan unit of distance equal to seven kilometers.  It's also worth noting that Incan roadway construction varied significantly by territory, since it was the responsibility of local populations to both build and maintain these roads. As the National Museum of the American Indian explains, using a give-and-take concept known as Mit'a and Anyi — or labor and reciprocity — the head of each household was required to pay a labor tax (Mit'a) by working on agricultural, military or construction projects for a specific amount of time each year. In return (Anyi), the Incan government provided food and security.  The (Not So) Straight and Narrow  Perhaps one of the most incredible aspects of the Qhapaq é‘an was the willingness of Inca builders to both work with natural landscapes and conquer any challenges they presented. For example, while Incan engineers have often been praised for their ability to create uniform roadways with ancient tools, all but the most well-traveled highways tend to follow naturally-existing pathways rather than fighting these contours. The Incan exception came when they encountered steep ravines or rushing rivers; rather than trying to find a way around or head downstream to discover a shallow ford, engineers tackled the problem head-on by building either rope suspension bridges or "oroya," suspended baskets that could transport a few passengers at once over far greater distances.  Consider the suspension bridge over the Apurimac River, which measured 45 meters in length. Local populations were responsible for gathering, soaking, pounding and drying bushels of long grass that they then wove into strong fibers, stretched across the river, and lashed to rocky outcroppings. And with substantial degradation from repeated use, many communities had to complete the same process year after year to ensure bridges were safely maintained for all travelers.  Acknowledging the Qhapaq é‘an Legacy  Today, many paths on the Inca road system remain in use. Perhaps the most famous are the stairways and bridges surrounding popular tourist destinations such as Machu Picchu, but many modern roads use these pre-Columbian roadways as inspiration for current routes. As Smithsonian Magazine notes, technical traditions around Qhapaq é‘an construction remain. Every year, four villages in the Andes undertake a three-day festival to create a new rope suspension bridge, cut the old one free into the river below and replace it with the fruits of their substantive labors. Using virtually the same techniques as their Incan ancestors, young men haul massive fiber ropes into yawning chasm while village elders say prayers and make offerings. When construction is complete, leaders from each side of the river meet in the middle of their newly-minted effort and declare "Tukuushis" — we've finished.  This is the legacy of the Main Andean Road. While construction began more than six hundred years ago and the empire's use declined rapidly after the arrival of Europeans, the effort and engineering skill required to create this roadway system — all without the convenience of modern tools or even iron implements — cements its status as both an ancient architectural marvel and enduring human achievement. 

Navigating the Inca Road System That United an Empire

Particle physics is on a quest to uncover the fundamental components of the universe by analyzing, cataloging and measuring the particles that combine to create everything. This is no easy task — the sheer variety and variability of these physical firmaments makes this a constantly changing puzzle that can seem utterly inscrutable until a new secret is unlocked. Now, new research into the muon — a small, electron-like particle 200 times heavier than its negatively charged cousin — may point the way to the next particle pivot: wobbles. Standard Operating Procedure To help make sense of the universe and how it operates, scientists created the Standard Model. This wasn't an easy task, either. As SciTechDaily notes, while the electron was discovered in 1897, the last piece of the current framework — the Higgs boson — wasn't confirmed until 2012. The model provides a way to reconcile three of the four fundamental forces: electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force. It also highlights the role of quarks and leptons as the building blocks of all matter, including the familiar trio of protons, neutrons and electrons. Work on the Standard Model has pinpointed that photons play a role in carrying electromagnetism, while the strong force relies on gluons to ensure atomic nuclei stability and the weak force leverages W and Z bosons to drive the powerful nuclear processes that keep stars burning for billions of years. However, despite its utility, the Standard Model has a blind spot: gravity. While the model does a great job describing which particles underpin the other three fundamental forces, gravity is conspicuously absent. That's because scientists have never been able to tie a specific particle to the creation and distribution of gravity. While it plays a critical role in the operation of our universe — from counterbalancing the expansive tendencies of nuclear reactions within our sun to keeping our feet firmly planted on planet Earth — this seemingly simple attractive operation has historically resisted any in-depth understanding. But new muon measurements may change all that. Cracking the Code What's important to remember about scientists — and particle physicists specifically — is that they're never satisfied with the status quo. While the Standard Model provides a starting point for understanding the universe, obvious gaps in the current framework mean there's more work to be done. In practice, this work is about finding novel approaches to potentially break the model by conducting experiments, taking measurements and then comparing the results to what the model predicts. The challenge? For years, the model has been coming up with the right answers, much to the frustration of physicists who know there's something missing. Repeated experiments using different particle approaches have churned out accurate measurement after accurate measurement — until now. Recent follow-up work on previous muon experiments using more advanced equipment suggests a crack in the current model and offers hope that scientists may have finally found the key to a new revolution in particle physics. Meet the Muon So, what exactly is a muon? Think electron, but heavier. Much heavier — 200 times heavier, in fact. As Science Daily notes, both muons and electrons "are essentially tiny magnets with their own magnetic field." However, unlike electrons, muons are far less stable, only existing for a few millionths of a second before they decay. It's also difficult to observe muons even during their brief time here, since the vacuum they occupy isn't empty. "It's your cappuccino-foam version of the vacuum, where there's virtual particles winking in and out of existence all the time," Lawrence Gibbons, who led the Cornell team involved in the new research, told Science Daily. "And that turns out to affect the strength of the magnetic field of a muon." Thanks to work done at CERN in 1959, followed by more precise experiments in 1966 and 1969, and then another round at Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1999, researchers finally found something: disconnect between observed and predicted magnetic measurements when muons made their way into this vacuum. New efforts at Fermilab with more precise and advanced equipment have confirmed these findings — and may pave the way for a much more massive muon impact. Let's Get Physics-al The work at CERN, Brookhaven and Fermilab all focus on the same thing: the g-2 value of muon, which represents the amount they "wobble" via vacuum interactions. As Fermilab particle physicist Jessica Esquivel notes, this wobble is called the precession frequency. "When muons go into a magnetic field, they precess, or they spin like a spinning top," she tells Vox. To measure precession, the Fermilab efforts used a powerful particle accelerator — capable of creating 20 times more muons than those used previously at CERN — to shoot an intense beam of muons into highly sensitive detectors, which measured their precession frequency. As the Standard Model predicted, this precession occurs when muons collide with virtual particles, which Esquivel describes as "sort of like ghosts of actual particles." "We have photons that kind of pop in and out and they're just kind of like there, but not really there," she told Vox. However, despite this here-and-gone-again strangeness, these virtual particles have a physical impact on muon wobbles. But this is where it gets really weird: Experiments at Fermilab confirm that muons are wobbling more than they should be, according to the Standard Model. Even more exciting? Scientists don't know why. Wobbling Our Way Forward The lack of certainty here is what makes these experimental results so interesting. Under the Standard Model, muon g-2 values are explainable using current particle interactions and should produce predictable results. However, the Fermilab efforts suggest that something else is causing this extra wobble — something that lies outside the current functional framework, as Esquivel and her colleagues told Vox. And while there's already been some discussion of this "breaking" the Standard Model, it's more like filling in the details where data was clearly missing. Esquivel likens it to the addition of elements to the periodic table.  "Even back then," she told Vox, "they had spots where they knew an element should go, but they hadn't been able to see it yet. That's essentially where we're at now." In practice, this muon movement opens the door to a host of potential particle operations. This unexpected wobble might be caused by interaction with long-predicted dark matter or dark energy particles, or it could help to establish a particle-based link to the outlying fourth fundamental force of gravity. Esquivel puts the impact of this motion measurement simply: "It's once-in-a-lifetime. We're chasing new physics and we're so close, we can taste it." One muon meal, extra wobble — coming right up! Being on the forefront of change, especially regarding space, physics and engineering has been part of the Northrop Grumman culture for generations. Click here to search jobs in these areas of scientific innovation.

Meet the Muon: Wobbling Its Way Into Particle Physics History

In a high plateau of the Andes Mountains in Peru, archaeologists were at an excavation site looking for artifacts when they uncovered the remains of a big game hunter. The skeleton, which they called WMP6, seemed especially important because it was buried with an extensive kit of stone weapons and blades. "Everybody was talking about how this was a great chief, a big man," archaeologist Randy Haas told Science. But upon closer inspection, the archaeologists realized the bones were lighter and more slender than expected, which made them wonder if the hunter could have been female. Their study suggests that our early hunter-gatherer ancestors might have structured their society with more gender equality than previously thought. The Female Hunter The high status hunter was, in fact, a young woman. These ancient bones suggest that women warriors were responsible for hunting down and catching large Andean animals such as vicué±a and deer. But how can we be so sure? The excavation site, called Wilamaya Patjxa, is located at an altitude of 12,877 feet. After 9,000 years, there wasn't much left of WMP6 — just fragments of a skull, teeth and partial leg bones, according to the study in ScienceAdvances. The archeologists used a new forensic technique to confirm that the bones belonged to a female hunter. In addition to using the standard methods for studying ancient bones, they also analyzed the skeleton's tooth enamel to find out whether it had a male or female version of a protein called amelogenin. Even if the skeleton was female, how could the researchers be sure that she was a leading hunter? Certainly, the hunting tools were a clue. She was buried with blades and stone projectiles that were likely the tips of spears, darts or arrows. Her toolkit was extensive, while a nearby male skeleton was buried with only a few hunting tools. It is possible that her tools were a gift or had another symbolic meaning, but it's more likely that she was a hunter. The researchers studied isotopes of carbon and nitrogen in the woman's teeth, which revealed that she ate a typical hunter's diet of animal meat and plants. Archaic Gender Roles  This recent discovery challenges common assumptions about the gendered division of labor throughout history and today. This wasn't the first time we've heard about a female big game hunter. But previously, women warriors were considered outliers. Our modern understanding of hunter-gatherer societies typically assumes that men went into the wild to do the dangerous work of hunting while women gathered edible plants and took care of the children.  However, in their study, the researchers point out how early economies that relied on big game would have encouraged participation from "all able individuals," no matter the gender. Plus, they suggest that childcare duties were likely shared among the community, which would have given women the opportunity to hunt.  They explored this hypothesis by reviewing previous reports of similar ancient remains in academic journals — and they found nearly half of the big game hunters were female. Based on this evidence, they wrote, "Early big-game hunting was likely gender neutral or nearly so." There is disagreement among experts on this subject, with others suggesting that only 10% of hunters were women, as the New York Times reports. Additional research should help to clear up this question and help us understand human history. Perhaps by better understanding our ancestors, we can dispel stereotypes about men and women in the modern workplace.

Ancient Woman Found in Peru: Was She a Powerful Big Game Hunter?

More than 13 billion years ago, a supermassive black hole produced storm winds that blew through a young galaxy at speeds of up to a million miles per hour. The galaxy, now known as HSC J124353.93+010038.5 (shortened for convenience to J1243+0100) may have a supremely colorless official name — but in the early days of the universe, it must have been a very dramatic place. Galactic-scale storm winds have been observed before, but never in a galaxy so far away — 13.1 billion light years, to be exact. This means we're seeing it as it was 13.1 billion years ago when the universe itself was less than a billion years old. And finding storm winds in such a young galaxy, in the early universe, tends to confirm something that astronomers have wondered about: Galaxies and their central supermassive black holes must have developed together, each helping to shape the other. A Matter of Balance Galaxies and supermassive black holes are clearly related; most galaxies have this kind of black hole at their center. But determining exactly how they are related has proven tricky. As Techexplorist reports, a team of researchers recently tackled this question. On the implications for how galaxies develop, lead author of the research paper Takuma Izumi noted, "This is an important question because it is related to an important problem in astronomy: How did galaxies and supermassive black holes coevolve?" According to Universe Today, the most widespread view has been that galactic winds arose at a later "starburst" stage of galactic development, when large numbers of bright stars would form and their combined radiation could drive a cosmic "wind" of energetic particles, similar to the solar wind but on a vastly larger scale. But the newly discovered wind blowing through J1243+0100 suggests that a supermassive black hole can drive powerful galactic storm winds much earlier than the starburst era. As Science Daily reports, the research team that made the discovery began by searching for very distant (and thus very early) galaxies with Japan's Subaru Telescope, then they zeroed in on J1243+0100 with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array, or ALMA, in Chile. What they found was not only a very turbulent, stormy, young galaxy — but also a striking "coincidence" that is probably no coincidence at all. The supermassive black hole at the core of J1243+0100 has about 300 million times the mass of the sun. The galactic bulge of J1243+0100 itself has a mass of some 30 billion suns, a hundred times heavier. This is roughly the same proportion of supermassive black-hole mass to surrounding galaxy mass that is observed in our own Milky Way galaxy and other nearby galaxies. The new findings suggest that this proportional pattern is built deep into the formation process of galaxies — and operated even in the early universe. But why? Falling In, Blowing Out The answer may relate to the seeming paradox that supermassive black holes — notorious for having gravity so powerful that not even light can escape — are some of the brightest objects in the universe. The reason is that as streams of falling matter plunge toward a black hole, they collide with other streams, and these collisions release enormous energy — enough to drive a blast of particles outward, even as other particles are falling inward. As the outward storm wind builds up, it can finally choke off the streams of falling matter. This in turn limits the further growth of the supermassive black hole and eventually causes the storm wind itself to die down. Thus, the gravitational infall and storm winds' outward blast can produce a long-term balance, leading to the observed result of a consistent mass ratio between the supermassive black hole and galactic bulge — for both mature galaxies like our Milky Way and distant young ones like J1243+0100. One swallow does not make a summer, and observation of one remote galaxy in the dawn of the universe does not make a conclusive result. The research program is ongoing, examining dozens of other distant galaxies for telltale signs of storm winds. But the discovery of storm winds in J1243+0100 does point toward a greater understanding of the balancing forces that have shaped the galaxies we see around us, including our own. Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are, too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.

A Supermassive Black Hole Storm May Reveal Secrets About the Early Universe

Were there aquatic dinosaurs roaming the oceans once upon a time? And if there were, what did they look like? In short, they did exist millions of years ago, and thanks to the fossil record, we have a pretty good idea of what they looked like. From toothier versions of today's dolphins to enormous Komodo-dragon-like sea monsters, these fabulous beasts once ruled the seas. Did Dinosaurs Live in Water? Before diving into the prehistoric world of aquatic dinosaurs, it's best to lay one myth to rest. Yes, there were dinosaurs that hunted the seas and lakes, but that's because they could, not because they had to. At one time, it was proposed that certain dinosaurs were so large that they needed to immerse themselves in lakes and other large bodies of water to provide enough buoyancy to stay upright. You've probably seen this in school textbooks and other illustrations, where a brachiosaurus or diplodocus peers out of a primeval lake, munching a mouthful of mossy greens. This isn't the truest depiction, as explained in The Smithsonian Magazine. Examination of fossil records shows that there's good evidence to support the notion that large dinosaurs did not need to stand armpit deep in water to stay upright. For example, clear fossil footprints track ancient creatures that stomped across soft mud at the banks of rivers and lakes. Footprints gradually became more tip-toe as water buoyancy took over, with the reverse taking place on the opposing bank when the ancient beasts lumbered out. Another pointer is dinosaur bone density. As The Guardian points out, most fully aquatic animals have dense bones, which help them submerge. Aquatic dinosaurs had much lower density, and some even had air pockets in their bones, which means they would have bobbed around on the surface, unable to stand on the lake bed. Although they didn't have inbuilt snorkels, many dinosaurs did have upward-flaring nostrils that would have been handy for semi-submerged life. However, this still doesn't point toward the creatures being fully aquatic to cope with bulk. Rather, it only serves as evidence that dinosaurs, like other animals, fully exploited the various habitats available to them in their search for food. So, were there aquatic dinosaurs that did live the entirety of their life submerged? Spinosaurus, the First Water-Loving Dinosaur? In April 2020, National Geographic reported the discovery of a water-loving dinosaur in the Moroccan Sahara with a snout like a modern crocodile and conical teeth to keep slippery fish from getting away. The fossilized skeleton, found in what would have been one of the abundant river systems that once covered this modern-day desert region, had several features that showed the cretaceous theropod was well equipped for aquatic life 95 to 100 million years ago. The spinosaur not only had bones dense enough to help with buoyancy, but when paleontologists uncovered its tail, they found bony struts sticking out from the vertebrae. Reconstruction shows that this gave the spinosaur a tail like an oar, which could be used to propel the aquatic dinosaurs through the water. Furthermore, the articulation between the vertebrae showed that the kind of flexion this enabled was similar to that of other animals that swim. Plesiosaurs, Still With Us Today? Another recently uncovered Moroccan Sahara fossil shows that plesiosaurs were also aquatic dinosaurs. Science Direct describes how paleontologists found scattered bone and teeth remnants in the ancient river systems showing that these animals could also move between salt water and fresh water. The fossilized teeth indicate that plesiosaurs not only ate armored river fish but also spent a considerable amount of time living and hunting in fresh water. According to the BBC, plesiosaurs died out around 66 million years ago — but then again, maybe the myths about the Loch Ness Monster are true. (Spoiler alert: Probably not). Mosasaurus, the Film Star If you remember a particular film scene from a summer blockbuster about dinosaurs —where a giant water monster erupts from below to grab a great white shark before crashing back and showering the crowd with water, that's the cinematic version of a mosasaurus. The real version was around 56 feet long (just over 17 meters), which is similar in size to a megalodon. The mosasaurus lived during the Cretaceous period, around 145.5 to 65.5 million years ago. As NewsWeek notes, these weren't truly dinosaurs but reptiles and distant relatives of today's iguana. Science Daily describes fossil skeletons found in Morocco as having a short, wide muzzle and looking like a Komodo dragon with flippers. The fossil records of this species show a shark-like fin tail for moving through water, as well as a set of palatal teeth. This secondary row of huge conical teeth helped the Mosasaurus prevent prey from escaping once they were grabbed. Tooth evidence shows that the mosasaurus ate more than just fish, as damage to teeth and healed fractures in jaw bones show that larger animals were munched as prey, and that the mosasaurus lived a violent life as an ocean apex predator. Ichthyosaur, the Sea Dragon An ichthyosaur fossil found in a Rutland Water excavation in the UK shows that the 180-million-year-old sea dragon had a 2-meter (around 6 feet) skull that weighed around one metric ton (over 2,000 pounds). The 10-meter (around 33 feet) specimen is the largest, most complete ichthyosaur fossil skeleton ever found, though The Guardian notes that this species could be anywhere from 1 to 25 meters long. This prehistoric reptile, which was alive during the Jurassic period, became extinct around 90 million years ago. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Were There Aquatic Dinosaurs?

Peggy Whitson's space missions are iconic. She spent 665 days in space, more than any other woman or U.S. astronaut, and she commanded the International Space Station (ISS) twice. Whitson retired from NASA in June after a successful career that broke records and demonstrated the incredible value that women bring to science and space. "I have hit my radiation limit," Whitson told Business Insider. "So [I'm] not going into space with NASA anymore."  A Farm Girl Who Became One of the Most Successful Female Astronauts Whitson was inspired to explore space at nine years old when humans walked on the moon for the first time in 1969. "I thought, what a cool job! It really didn't become a reality to me to become a goal until I graduated from high school, which was coincidentally the same year they picked the first set of female astronauts," Whitson said in an interview with NASA. After growing up on a farm in Iowa, Whitson went on to study biology. She double majored in biology and chemistry — completing college in just three years — and went on to Rice University to study biochemistry. Whitson worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Johnson Space Center; in 1989, she was hired by NASA to be head of the Space Center's biochemistry section. "I've always said I've never had a real job because I've always done what I wanted to do, which was work at NASA," Whitson said. At Johnson, Whitson served in a number of scientific roles that involved joint projects between the U.S. and Russia — the Soviet Union at the time — which prepared her for her future leadership role at the ISS. However, she didn't have instant success. According to Business Insider, Whitson applied to be an astronaut 10 times before she was finally selected in 1996. After years of training on the ground, she experienced her first space mission in 2002, where she completed 21 science investigations and became NASA's first space station science officer. Peggy Whitson's Space Missions and Achievements On each of Peggy Whitson's space missions, she set new records and changed perceptions of gender and its representation in space. In 2008, during her second mission, she became the first female commander of the ISS, according to NASA. She continued to break glass ceilings back on Earth, where she became the first woman and first non-military person to serve as chief of the astronaut corps. From 2016 to 2017, she was back in space, yet again setting records. She became the first woman to command the ISS twice, the oldest female astronaut and the most experienced female spacewalker, rounding out her career with "10 spacewalks totaling 60 hours and 21 minutes" in space outside an aircraft, said NASA. On one spacewalk, Whitson saw her reflection in an array of solar panels. She told Business Insider, "I could see myself in a space suit, I could see the Earth behind me in the solar arrays, and I was like, 'holy cow, I really am an astronaut!' Because you forget. You're in this moment. You're getting a job done." Want to work with female engineers who are changing the game? Check out our careers page.  [tweet width="500" id="943151969081937920"]    

665 Days in Orbit: Peggy Whitson's Space Missions

Nineteen days, 21 hours and 55 minutes. In 1999, Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones discovered that's how long it takes to circumnavigate the globe in a balloon — becoming the first in history to accomplish this feat and paving the way for Piccard's future work on ultra-light solar technologies.
But it wasn't all smooth sailing. While the Breitling Orbiter 3 made the nearly three-week trip from Switzerland to Egypt successfully, Orbiters 1 and 2 weren't so lucky. And the field was heating up: Other explorers including Richard Branson and Steve Fossett were also investing in hot air adventures, attempting to secure their spots as the first the balloon-based circumnavigators.
Piccard and Jones prevailed, but their balloon triumph took plenty of planning, leveraging of lessons learned — and a generous helping of good luck.
Up, Up and ... Uh-Oh
Balloon travel comes with significant ups and downs. The Hindenburg offers a stark example of worst-case scenario in action; while the zeppelin industry is now recovering, it took decades after the disaster for companies and customers to get comfortable with the idea again.
On a smaller scale, Piccard and Jones faced the problem of exposure rather than explosions; bad weather could rip their balloon to shreds. While the Smithsonian notes that the gondola of Piccard's craft was made of Kevlar and carbon fiber to withstand the journey, the balloon itself was aluminum-coated nylon fiber — this offers improved thermal control but almost no defense against hail or other severe weather events. Steering and fuel were the other persistent problems. Lacking precise control, Piccard and Jones relied on wind currents to carry the day, but this required precise application of fuel to ensure they found the right jet stream at the right time.
Previous attempts proved the difficulty of this endeavor. As noted by Piccard's official website, Richard Branson attempted the same journey earlier in 1999 but was forced to crash-land near Hawaii after the jet stream petered out. According to the BBC, adventurer Steve Fossett made several attempts — in 1997 and 1998 — but both ended in failure. Bertrand Piccard also experienced unhappy endings: Breitling Orbiter 1 was only in the air for six hours in 1997 before a fuel leak forced an emergency landing. The second iteration fared better in February 1998, making it nine days and breaking world distance records before a detour around Chinese airspace popped the potential of this journey with a landing in Burma.
But on March 1, 1999, Piccard was ready to try again.
With Rozier-Colored Glasses
By the time Piccard and Jones touched down, they'd broken more than a few world records. According to the
  Fédération Aéronautique Internationale

 (FAI), the pair set absolute records for:

    Distance: 25,361 miles (40,814 km)
    Duration: 477 hours and 47 minutes
    Shortest time around the world: 370 hours and 24 minutes

Both the distance and duration records still stand, but the shortest time mark was surpassed in 2002 by none other than Steve Fosset — who also earned the record for first solo-circumnavigation of the globe in a balloon — and was broken again by Fedor Konyukhov in 2016.
Converting ambition to accolades, however, required the right balloon technology, and for Piccard that meant using a Rozier design. Rozier balloons combine the features of hot air and gas to deliver the best of both worlds. By leveraging a helium-gas cell with a surrounding hot air envelope, Rozier balloons prevent the lifting gas from cooling overnight to keep the craft at a consistent altitude. Originally developed in 1785, the first iterations used hydrogen but were replaced with helium when it became more widely available after the Second World War, significantly increasing safety.
Piccard and Jones, meanwhile, made the trip inside the 18' x 12' x 10' gondola which included more than 30 titanium cylinders of propane fuel. The cabin itself was sealed once the balloon reached 6,000 feet and contained navigation gear, a radio, a single bunk and a pressure-operated toilet. Solar panels underneath the gondola recharged the lead-acid batteries that powered on-board electrical systems and regular shots of propane into the Rozier envelope kept the helium warm overnight.
Overall? Not the most comfortable of carriers, but strong, light and resilient enough to shatter world records.
The Winds of Change
How do you get a balloon around the globe in 19 days? Turns out you need plenty of practice — and more than little good luck.
Things started promisingly enough: On March 1, 1999, the duo lifted off from Chateau d'Oex in the Swiss Alps. High altitudes caused in-cabin temperature to drop and both balloonists struggled to sleep, but the journey itself was relatively quiet — until they reached the Pacific. While Chinese aviation authorities had relented this time, allowing the balloon to cross their airspace and significantly shortening the journey, on-the-ground weather teams had to decide if it was better to head north into Pacific seas or take the safer southern route. The northern path included storms and blistering cold, while the southern track added more 2,485 miles (4,000 km) to the total distance.
The southern gamble paid off with Piccard and Jones grabbing a 111 mph (180 km/hr) jet stream boost that barreled them toward Mexico, but things quickly went off the rails again. According to Piccard, "On March 17 above Mexico we had one-quarter of the world to overfly with one-eighth of the fuel remaining, and we'd just lost the jet stream. So I thought we were going to fail." He pushed the balloon as high as he could, using almost all of their fuel reserves. As he reached maximum altitude, the direction and speed of the wind shifted, carrying them across the Atlantic, over Libya and down into Egypt at 124 mph (200 km/hr). When the Breitling Orbiter 3 finally touched down, it had less than one-quarter of one fuel tank left.
The Future of Flight
Accolades aside, the fraught nature of fuel-based flight inspired Piccard to address this aviation limitation. In 2003, he started the Solar Impulse project with the goal of flying a solar-powered plane around the globe. In 2016, Solar Impulse 2 completed the journey in Abu Dhabi — the craft had a wingspan greater than a 747 and used more than 17,000 solar cells.
While gondola-based flights probably won't replace commercial airliners any time soon, the balloon travel triumph by Piccard and Jones remains an incredible achievement. It's also a testament to the nature of human ingenuity and the focus on what comes next: What barriers can be broken when we slip the surly bonds of earth?

Air Apparent: The Broken Balloon Barriers of Betrand Piccard

More than a year has passed since Parisians watched in horror and sadness as Notre Dame Cathedral, a symbol of national pride since its construction in the 12th Century, was partially destroyed by fire. First, melted scaffolding needs to be removed from the charred and broken Notre Dame before any architectural restoration begins in earnest. The scaffolding was in place for a $6.8 million restoration that was nearly completed when the fire struck. A team leading the post-fire reconstruction effort intends to remove the scaffolding in March before beginning the painstakingly careful repair work out of fear the building's vaults could collapse. The French government, which leads the team, wants to ensure every restored artifact aligns with tradition and the expectations of future generations. Notre Dame Cathedral isn't the first — and won't be the last — historic building to be restored after falling into disrepair or being destroyed by natural disaster or war. French restorationists will undoubtedly make decisions that are informed by the spirit of the structure, but they also can seek guidance from the rebuilding of other acclaimed historic buildings and new technologies. Starting Over Again and Again Contemporary U.S. presidents don't actually stay in the same White House that George Washington lived in when he was in office. For one, it was then called the President's House, and — until John Adams' presidency — it was in Philadelphia. But more exactly, the building that became the White House was lost to a fire set by British troops that stormed Washington, D.C., in 1814, two years into the War of 1812. Although it took 10 years to construct the first White House, its architect, James Hoban, returned to the wreckage to reconstruct a new one in less than three years. Hoban was able to reuse stone walls, significantly hastening the rebuild, but he also saved time by altering the structural scheme of the building by using timber instead of brick, according to the White House Historical Association. Although resourceful and successfully working off memory, Hoban's expediency led to a weaker structure that ultimately led to a demolition and rebuilding of the White House 130 years later. White House reconstruction efforts pale in comparison with the many rebuilds of St. Paul's Cathedral in London. The cathedral dates to 604 A.D., but it has had several incarnations after burning in several fires over the centuries. Viking raiders also destroyed it. The Great Fire of London in 1666 claimed St. Paul's yet again, leading a scientist, Christopher Wren, to lead an architectural restoration effort that illustrates the many demands on a project of public significance. After having designs rejected as too modest or too radical, Wren struck the perfect note with a plan to have the larger rebuilt church surrounded by dozens of smaller new churches. The beloved cathedral stood strong during the London Blitz, a German bombardment of the city in World War II, sustaining only minor damage and acting as a symbol of Britain's resilience. Bringing Notre Dame Back to Life Modern technology now helps architects rebuild and preserve historic structures and determine how to create a restored artifact with the care and precision that restorationists and the public often expect. Infrared thermography measures the radiation emitted by different materials to create a multi-layered look inside the walls of a building. This view can show preservationists where things are buried, whether a support beam has cracked and if anything lies beneath the surface. Ground-penetrating radar also helps detect structural defects in masonry and stone, and if any archeological remains are buried in the surrounding grounds. Laser scanning could someday help bring Notre Dame Cathedral back to life. This process has emerged as a nearly fail-safe way to record the dimensions of structures should those many details be needed later. The digital photos can be used as "point clouds," essentially detailed 3D models that can serve as blueprints for reconstructing buildings hurt by time, fire and natural disaster. Because of the widespread affection for Notre Dame Cathedral, many recorded its internal workings before the 2019 fire. Vassar College professor Andrew Tallon led a 3D laser scan of the entire cathedral before his death in 2018. His continuous mapping of the church created a 3D image that Tallon said was accurate to within five millimeters and is considered a near-realistic image of the space that can guide the eventual reconstruction. Of course, the materials used to build and repair Notre Dame over the centuries — including the timber that made the roof and the stone that shaped the vaults — isn't readily available today. Still, Tallon's scanned images will give the eventual saviors of Notre Dame a meticulous view of how the cathedral used to stand and how it can again stretch into the Paris sky.

Technology and History Can Guide Architectural Restoration

 The Battle of the Coral Sea was about the strategy of dealing with an unseen enemy. Nearly all competitive strategies have an element of knowing your opponent to gain the upper hand. For centuries, military forces have designated individuals and groups to provide reconnaissance and intelligence on enemy forces. In modern military technology, this is often wrapped up in the acronym C4ISR, which stands for Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance.  Enable targeting cookies to view this content. Use of Technology  Military powers of the past would employ whatever technology they had available. Take the 1942 Battle of the Coral Sea, the first naval engagement between two fleets that never even saw each other. That battle was possibly due to the use of SIGINT (signals intelligence) by U.S. forces, who located the Japanese fleet using CXAM radar.  This engagement of naval fleets was fought primarily by air from aircraft carriers. The first aircraft into the fight were Northrop Grumman F4F-3, launched from the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown. The F4F fighter plane was a fighting staple of World War II and now has a place in the Smithsonian Museum. New Military Technology  Fighter plane technology has grown exponentially since the days of the F4F Wildcat. Take, for example, the Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider. Packed with the best of today's stealth technology, the B-21 is an update to the iconic stealth bomber, the B-2, which itself holds records including longest bomber run (44 hours). For those pilots over the Coral Sea during World War II, the aerial endurance demonstrated by the B-21 would have looked like something out of science fiction.  Technology has come a long way, and aviation and naval suppliers require knowledge in a variety of fields. The B-21 is still a work in progress, which means teams of engineers are working to integrate the newest radar and sensing technologies, but the computing power of a single modern bomber today exceeds the total that existed globally during World War II.  One of the reasons for this computational power is the simple need for data processing. Even a commercial surveying unmanned aerial vehicle, used in construction and mining industries, is capable of modeling a full 3-D model of the surrounding terrain. Couple that capability with personnel movement, anti-detection and stealth technologies, and communications systems, and the sophistication just keeps growing. Once airborne, the aircraft of today are outfitted with enough sensing technology that getting lost is nearly impossible.  Even without seeing the ships they were battling, the vessels engaged in the Battle of the Coral Sea built an understanding of their unseen enemies' movements. This command of intelligence was crucial to preventing damage. Ultimately, the Battle of the Coral Sea ended with both sides suffering aircraft losses.  As a leader in C4ISR, Northrop Grumman enables vehicles and vessels of all types to find their way effectively. From autonomous systems that can make on-the-fly decisions to sensing technology that can pinpoint the location of a threat, today's military machines are even more refined in the art of automated and sightless combat. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

How the Battle of the Coral Sea Changed Military Technology

To be clear, these events didn't happen simultaneously. Given Dr. Scott Parazynski's track record — he's made five trips to space, completed multiple spacewalks, conquered Mount Everest, earned a medical degree and started his own company — it wouldn't have been surprising to discover he'd found a way to blast off from the world's tallest mountain through the atmosphere and into space. Still, his actual list of accomplishments is no less impressive: Parazynski is the first man to climb Mount Everest and make it into space. And it gets better: While on his final mission, STS-120, he went farther on a spacewalk than any previous astronaut to repair a damaged solar panel on the International Space Station (ISS). Beyond what he calls his "patented extreme focus," what did it take for Parazynski to reach the summit and touch the stars? What setbacks marked his way on the path to making history? And — perhaps most importantly — what was harder: scaling the summit or suiting up for space? Second Time Lucky Summiting Everest is no easy task. Changing mountain conditions create a very small window of opportunity — typically just a few weeks in May — for climbers to reach the top. There's also an emerging accessibility problem: As more and more technology-equipped climbers flock to the mountain, deadly "traffic jams" are occurring. According to the BBC, new rules are coming after one of the deadliest climbing seasons in history last year, partly to improve climber conditions and partly to stem the tide of trash being left behind. Outdoor adventure company Alpine Ascents recommends a training regime that combines high-altitude climbing (above 20,000 feet, if possible), lower body and core strength training, cardiovascular training and flexibility training to increase the chances of success. Typical preparation times are a year or more, and the company also recommends hiring a personal trainer with climbing experience to help fine-tune athletic performance. Parazynski did his due diligence; as an experienced climber, he made multiple treks up dangerous routes including the Khumbu Icefall and Lhotse Face to prepare for his journey. In 2008, he began the Everest ascent with a partner and two experienced guides, but at just over 24,500 feet — less than 5,000 feet from the summit — he suffered a ruptured disc in his lower back that forced him to abandon the trip and start over. After surgery and recovery, he tried again in 2009 and succeeded, becoming the first man to both climb Mount Everest and blast off into space. Walk on the Wild Side According to NASA, Parazynski went into space on five separate missions, starting with STS-66 in 1994, followed by STS-86 (1997), STS-95 (1998), STS-100 (2001) and finally STS-120 in 2007. This last mission proved the most challenging — during construction of the ISS, a solar panel tore during relocation and re-extension. Parazynski and his crewmates made multiple spacewalks to repair the problem, with Parazynski spending hours outside attached to a 15-meter extension boom connected to the space station's 18-meter robotic crane. Not only was he farther away from relative safety than any other astronaut in history at an hour's walk from the cabin, he also faced the potentially fatal danger of touching the electrified solar panel. Slowly and carefully, he was able to knit the damaged panel back together using wire "cufflinks." When all was said and done, Parazynski and Colonel Doug Wheelock spent seven hours and 19 minutes in the cold dark of space to save the day. Outer Space or the Everest Summit? From space, Everest isn't all that impressive. While it towers above the landscape here on Earth at 5.5 miles high, the space shuttle cruises overhead at more than 600 miles from the surface. Given the massive difference, it seems like an easy call: Space must be the bigger challenge. But according to Parazynski in a Forbes interview, "it's an apples-to-oranges comparison, and I would never trade either. The opportunity to fly in space is a profound life changer -- it's a Shirley MacLaine out-of-body experience to see your home planet from those altitudes, flying at such enormous speeds. You're kind of looking back on your former existence. I would also suggest that the struggle to stand atop Everest, especially in my case where it didn't come easily -- I had to try twice before I succeeded -- was wonderful and rare." For Parazynski, the training necessary for both endeavors was similar. He notes that one of the best ways to prepare for a spacewalk is rock climbing since both require significant strength and endurance. He also speaks to the mental mettle necessary; whether ascending the highest peak on Earth or breaking the bonds of gravity, there's a palpable sense of isolation, loneliness and fear. Without the discipline required to handle this challenge, both climbers and astronauts are at risk. The Triumph Trifecta So what's next for Scott Parazynski, the first man to climb Mount Everest and make it into space? Perhaps unsurprisingly, he's also an accomplished diver. With his NASA days done and his summits solved, he's considering a new challenge: "Maybe one day I can get down to Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench," he says. "That would make a pretty neat trifecta for me."

The First Man to Climb Mount Everest — and Escape the Atmosphere

While the existence of dino dentists might have improved saurian species' quality of life (though, good luck getting a T-Rex to wait half an hour after a fluoride treatment before eating), great teeth aren't a remedy for sudden asteroid impacts. But fossilized dinosaur teeth do offer a glimpse into evolutionary history, helping paleontologists understand dino diets and critical evolutionary impacts. So, sit back and open wide, because we're heading back to the Jurassic period for some dental detective work. Tooth or Dare Despite their historical distance, dinosaurs remain a compelling study scenario for humankind: What did they look like? What did they eat? And how did they evolve over their millions of years on planet Earth? While this curiosity often results in a rallying cry to apply science and technological know-how to bring back a new generation of genetically-engineered dinos, this is both incredibly difficult and — as Jurassic Park made abundantly clear — dangerous. Thankfully, there's a better and safer way to discover more about our prehistoric pals: fossilized dinosaur teeth. Why? Because teeth are built with a bone and enamel combination that stays extremely well preserved. Dental archeologist Debbie Guatelli-Steinberg recently told NPR, "It's kind of convenient because teeth hold so much information." Not only does the shape and design of a dino tooth indicate its likely purpose, but calcified bacterial remnants and microscopic pitting can help identify what dinosaurs were eating — and how they ate it. Peter Ungar, an anthropologist at the University of Arkansas, delved into this dental microwear analysis to discover what animals ate by analyzing what food did to their teeth. He also leaned into a great dental pun, calling this chomp-and-chew history a "foodprint." Worth noting? When it comes to any dental detective work, Ungar makes it clear that teeth are typically adapted to the toughest part of an animal's diet rather than what it eats all the time. As he put it, "If you eat Jell-O almost every day of the year, but sometimes you need to eat rocks ... you want teeth that can eat rocks." Bite Me! So, what did dinosaurs really eat? And how did they eat it? While the jagged, steak knife-edged chompers of large predators such as the T-Rex have been studied in-depth, that's just the shallow end of the prehistoric pond. Consider recent work from the University of Alberta, which examined the Saurornitholestes, a small meat-eating dinosaur. Potential recreations suggest that it looked sort of a like a goose with a terrifying dino makeover. Analysis of scratches left on fossilized teeth showed that the dinosaur likely bit down and then pulled its head backward when chomping on prey. According to Ryan Wilkinson, co-author of a paper that examined the Saurornitholestes and two similar, small meat-eating dinosaurs — the Dromaeosaurus and the Troodon — the motion is best described as "puncture and pull," which helped these creatures grab onto prey and then tear off pieces of meat. The team also discovered differences across these three similar species. Analysis of Troodon fossils showed differences in their smaller teeth, called denticles, suggesting that if they struggled while prey fought back hard, the thrashing motion could more easily break these teeth than those of Dromaeosaurus or Saurornitholestes. As a result, Troodon likely went after slower, smaller prey that was less likely to cause dental destruction. Prehistoric Periodontology Analysis of dinosaur teeth also provides critical insight into vertebrate evolution. While mammals were generally thought to have more complex tooth structures than their reptilian cousins, recent examination of fossils from Changchunsarus Parvus, a small herbivorous dinosaur found in China, found evolved tooth development in this early species of ornithopod. Not only did C. Parvus teeth show evidence of more advanced "wavy enamel" similar to that of later ornithopods, but they also developed a unique tooth replacement method that allowed continual recycling of teeth without disrupting the mouth's overall shearing surface. Meanwhile, work on preserved teeth and jaws from Captorithus Aguti — a reptile that lived before the age of dinosaurs — showed evidence of increased right-side jaw wear indicating the potential for functional brain asymmetry, which is a critical feature of vertebrate evolution at scale. Food for Thought Fossilized dinosaur teeth offer a bite-sized look into the history and evolution of Earth's lizard overlords. Perhaps the same will be said someday of human molars and munchers left behind after our own apocalypse — but what will those looking back think of our fossilized fragments? Depending on the evolution of current diets and our ability to overcome general apathy toward dental service delivery, human history might offer the whole tooth — or nothing but the tooth.

Dental Detectives: Dinosaur Teeth Deliver Details on Diets

Throughout human evolution and human history, relationships with other humans have come with risk and opportunity. This is true of relationships with individuals and with groups. Many anthropologists believe that the need to navigate complex social interactions was a major force that drove the evolution of large human brains. Sharp rocks for stone tools The fossil record suggests that human ancestors were participating in complex social interactions 300,000 years ago, during the Middle Stone Age. As a paper published in Science explains, human ancestors living in Kenya likely had a trade network to distribute materials for stone tools. While many archaeological sites from this time period included tools made from local rock, one site had stone tools made from glassy volcanic obsidian. Careful analysis revealed that the obsidian came from multiple sources that were 25 to 95 kilometers away in multiple directions. When traveling by foot over the rocky terrain, the actual path would have been even longer. In present-day Africa, the remaining hunter-gatherer families generally only travel within a 20-km radius in a given year but maintain trade relationships with groups up to 100 km away. The Kenyan site contained a large number of finished obsidian tools (mostly sharp points for projectile weapons), large pieces of unfinished obsidian and evidence that the site was used repeatedly over many years. Thus, the simplest explanation is that neighboring groups developed stable trade networks to move significant quantities of this valuable stone. Human Evolution and Climate Change Many major milestones in human evolution have taken place within the context of climate change. According to the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, the earliest fossils attributed to Homo sapiens are from roughly 320,000 years ago during a period of dramatic climate change. As the Science paper describes, the fossil layers at the obsidian tool site from 300,000 years ago show that the once-stable lake environment had become unpredictable, with the lake drying up and the climate alternating between wet and dry. Present-day hunter-gatherer societies show that strong social networks and the willingness to use a wide range of strategies for subsistence are crucial for survival in such unpredictable environments, according to a paper published in Nature. When conditions improve, the most adaptable groups are more likely to flourish in the new environment, often increasing their range. The first major expansion of Homo sapiens occurred 130,000 to 100,000 years ago, after a major ice age, according to work published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. Humans spread across Africa and into Europe and Asia. There was a clear increase in population size, although some human populations were soon replaced by Neanderthal neighbors. After a mega-drought, there was another major migration out of Africa into Europe and Asia 70,000 to 50,000 years ago. These new neighbors displaced many of the groups from the first human migration. They even interbred with Neanderthals and possibly another hominid group called Denisovans. Advantages of Diversity While interbreeding with Neanderthals may seem like an extreme way of practicing diversity and inclusion, Homo sapiens did benefit. Neanderthals had been living in Europe and Asia since 400,000 years ago, and they were well adapted to the cooler climate. The changing climate and competition with humans finally drove Neanderthals to extinction 40,000 years ago, but they left their mark. Neanderthal DNA makes up 1.38% of the genome in modern East Asians, 1.15% in modern Europeans and 0.08% in modern African Luhya, as Nature reports. After the last ice age, there was another major expansion during the Holocene Epoch. Hunter-gatherer-fishers expanded into all major regions of the world, including North and South America. Populations also increased in Europe and Asia, which led to the development of farming in western Asia. With strong social networks and unprecedented control over their source of food, farmers expanded their range through Europe and elsewhere. Local populations either had to assimilate — with many becoming farmers — or be replaced. Many populations chose to embrace diversity and inclusion, as evidenced by the rich diversity within the gene pool of modern peoples. As humans currently face another major episode of climate change, we may do well to remember how early humans survived and thrived. They built strong social networks that allowed for the exchange of materials and ideas and were willing to try different approaches to achieve success. These same principles may prove critical in finding new ways to survive, thrive and innovate amidst today's ecological challenges. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

In Human Evolution, Neighbors Were Allies Rather Than Enemies

Today, we take water filtration for granted. From city sewer systems to storm drain ponds and water treatment plants, we're fortunate to have virtually unfettered access to clean, safe water. But where did it all start? How (and when) did humans devise and deploy systems that made this kind of water purification possible? The Maya city of Tikal offers a look back in time to the Western Hemisphere's first filtered framework. Let's dive in. On a Molecular Mission The goal of any water filtration system is to trap and remove problematic particles, from heavy minerals to harmful bacteria. Filtrating frameworks — often called molecular sieves, according to Smithsonian Magazine — are typically made using porous crystalline compounds capable of capturing these particles without negatively impacting overall water flow. The practice hasn't changed much in the past few millennia; according to the CDC, two key stages of current water treatment systems include sedimentation (the process of heavier particles settling to the bottom of water supplies) and effective filtration. And while archeological evidence shows that ancient civilizations were more than capable of building aqueous transport systems, molecular sieves were largely absent, especially in the Western Hemisphere. However, according to a paper published in Scientific Reports, new research suggests that Mayan engineers dealing with unique landscape and weather challenges devised and implemented a filtrating framework using a type of volcanic mineral — which is still used today — in city water systems, bottled water and wine. The Technology of Tikal The city of Tikal — also called Yax Mutal — contained more than 3,000 buildings and supported more than 60,000 people during its most populous period in 750, and it remained occupied until around 1100. Now part of a rainforest in Guatemala, the natural environment of Tikal came with unique water challenges, including a porous limestone base and reoccurring droughts. As a result, Mayan engineers needed a way to not only transport and store water but also to ensure this water didn't sicken and kill its population during times of drought. Accomplishing this goal meant creating the Corriental reservoir, which, despite high mercury content in other nearby water storage systems, was free of contamination. According to the Tikal researchers, the reason is simple: zeolite. Zeolite is a compound of silicon and aluminum, and as the CDC notes, it's still used in water filtration systems across the United States for its ability to collect and capture harmful microbes, especially when paired with crystalline quartz. The Tikal system had both, allowing it to naturally filter mercury and bacteria-heavy water before it was used by the populace. Worth noting: There's no naturally occurring zeolite in Tikal. Instead, the research team believes that the Maya likely found this combination some 18 miles northeast of town, near the Bajo de Azéºcar — which contained naturally pure and filtered water. According to Nicholas P. Dunning, co-author of the Scientific Reports paper, "It was probably through very clever empirical observation that the ancient Maya saw this particular material was associated with clean water and made some effort to carry it back." Once they brought it back, they would place it in settling tanks to clean and purify the water before it reached the Corriental reservoir. Not only does this system represent the earliest known example of water filtration in the Western Hemisphere, but it also predates the use of this compound for water decontamination anywhere in the world. As ScienceAlert notes, while the Romans did use a variant of zeolite — called pozzolan — as part of their cement mixture for building bridges and aqueducts, not even these famed ancient builders repurposed zeolite to remove water contaminants. Engineering Equivalence This Mayan water work also raises an important point: While ancient engineering efforts of Eastern Hemisphere civilizations point to the human preoccupation with clean, easily accessible water (such as the Roman Empire's still-standing Aqueduct of Segovia), these Eastern efforts are often regarded in isolation and ignore the efforts of their Mayan and Aztec counterparts. Case in point? The Maya city of Tikal. Not only were the builders tasked with transporting water across great distances to account for the problem of porous limestone foundations during droughts, but they also needed a way to correct for cyanobacteria and other disease-delivery microbes. As lead author of the Tikal study Kenneth Barnett Tankersley notes, "When it comes to water management, the Maya were millennia ahead." And that's not the only Western claim to fame. The post-Mayan Inca civilization was also responsible for creating one of the most complex and enduring roadway systems in the world — the Qhapaq é‘an — which stretched more than 25,000 miles down the western coast of South America, and parts of it are still in use to this day. Water, Water Everywhere We all need a drink. It's no exaggeration to say that civilizations live and die on their access to clean, fresh water — and when it comes to functional filtration frameworks, the Mayans were way ahead of the curve. 

Mayan High-Water Mark: The Western Hemisphere's First Filtration Framework

An ancient mummy can spark a heated debate among academics, even decades after its discovery. Recently, an international team of researchers revealed DNA evidence that refutes previously held beliefs about the origins and lifestyles of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies, which were found in China decades ago. Not Your Typical Ancient Mummy In China's arid Tarim Basin, hundreds of naturally mummified bodies were buried in boats. According to Smithsonian Magazine, researchers originally found the mummies in the early 20th century and then excavated the site in the 1990s. Ancient Egyptians intentionally preserved mummies following a specific protocol with religious meaning, but in this case, the desert environment naturally mummified bodies that were buried in the region. The mummies are up to 4,000 years old, but they are in excellent condition because the salty, dry desert prevented the bodies from decomposing. The authors of the research wrote in Nature, "The identity of the earliest inhabitants of Xinjiang, in the heart of Inner Asia, and the languages that they spoke have long been debated and remain contentious." Previously, scholars suggested that the mummies were migrants from West Asia. "The mummies have long fascinated scientists and the public alike since their original discovery. Beyond being extraordinarily preserved, they were found in a highly unusual context, and they exhibit diverse and far-flung cultural elements," Christina Warinner, an associate professor of anthropology at Harvard University and one of the authors of the Nature study told CNN. The researchers used DNA analysis to find out more about the genetic background of the mummies and even details about the way these ancestors lived thousands of years ago. Contrary to previous theories about the mummies being related to people in nearby regions, the new study proposes that they "appear to have arisen from a genetically isolated local population that adopted neighbouring pastoralist and agriculturalist practices, which allowed them to settle and thrive along the shifting riverine oases of the Taklamakan Desert." The researchers found evidence of milk proteins in the mummies' teeth, indicating that they ate dairy, which signifies an agricultural lifestyle that would be surprisingly advanced for the era and geographic isolation. "In contrast to their genetic isolation, however, they seem to have openly embraced new ideas and technologies from their herder and farmer neighbors, while also developing unique cultural elements shared by no other groups," Warinner said. Better Together: Science and Technology This revelation is one of many that are arising in scientific communities as technology provides new clues. Previous discoveries are now backed by physical evidence to support (or in the case of the Chinese mummies, to oppose) theories about historical events. Often, scientific discoveries emerge when new evidence is uncovered. Botanists discover a new plant in a remote location, a telescope captures images of a previously undiscovered galaxy, or archeologists excavate artifacts. Now, technological advances are enabling the scientific community to unlock novel discoveries from old evidence. Recent advances in computational power and artificial intelligence have boosted tools such as machine learning algorithms and DNA sequencing, which scientists can use to reveal new insights from specimens and data that previous generations of scientists meticulously collected and preserved. Today, computational biologists are studying plants on the genetic level to support agricultural and medicinal uses of plants. Astronomers are employing machine learning techniques to comb through massive amounts of images and data that telescopes such as Hubble collected over decades of space observation. And these high-tech tools are also useful for understanding historical context, such as where mummies came from and how they lived. DNA sequencing in particular is becoming increasingly useful for settling debate among researchers, solving crimes and enabling medical breakthroughs. This tool has suddenly become much more accessible. The National Human Genome Research Institute explains why: "Since the completion of the Human Genome Project, technological improvements and automation have increased speed and lowered costs to the point where individual genes can be sequenced routinely, and some labs can sequence well over 100,000 billion bases per year, and an entire genome can be sequenced for just a few thousand dollars." Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

DNA Evidence Reveals Secrets of Ancient Mummy Collection

Sixty-five million years ago wasn't a great time to be a dinosaur.   After nearly 165 million years of evolution and expansion across Earth's surface, the Chicxulub impactor swung into our solar system. This 6-mile-wide asteroid slammed into what's now the northern coast of Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula, causing the Chicxulub crater and creating an inhospitable environment for the planet's previous inhabitants.   But is that the whole story? While some scientists see Chicxulub as the "smoking gun" of dino destruction, others are less convinced about the notion of asteroid Armageddon.   What's in a Name?   The crater and impactor get their monikers from the town of Chicxulub, the closest human settlement to the site. The dinosaur-destroying object itself, however, is sometimes called a comet, meteor or asteroid. But what's the difference?   Simply put, it's a matter of size. While there's no standardized measurement, meteors, meteorites and micrometeoroids are typically small, ranging from the size of pebbles down to grains of sand. Asteroids and comets, meanwhile, aren't fooling around: Massive asteroids such as Ceres — measuring a substantial 592 miles in diameter — are considered dwarf planets. While the Chicxulub impactor wasn't quite so big, its 6-mile size was enough to change the course of life on Earth.   Later, Crater   Evidence of the impact crater was first found in 1978 by Antonio Camargo and Glen Penfield, but they weren't able to directly connect their observations to an asteroid impact. In 1980, Nobel Prize-winning physicist Luis Alvarez and his son, Walter Alvarez, suggested that increased deposits of iridium in 66-million-year-old clay — an element extremely rare on Earth but often found in space — lent credence to the Chicxulub crater theory. In 1990, evidence including melt spherules and shocked quartz were found at the impact site, indicating the presence of massive heat and pressure caused by an asteroid impact.   Later investigations also revealed a ring of buried, circular hills that contain granite rocks "out of order" with other sedimentary strata. This "peak ring" is common on other planets after impacts but hadn't been directly observed on Earth — it occurs when rock such as granite is superheated and begins flowing like liquid. In the case of Chicxulub, rock likely rebounded into a 10-meter tall tower before collapsing under its own weight and spreading out to form a ring of "hills" around the central impact site.   Today's Forecast? Terrible   While the initial outcomes of asteroid impact were awful — including massive waves, huge tsunamis, coastal wildfires and a massive heat pulse that could be felt more than 900 miles away — things only got worse from there. Part of the problem came from the fact that this was a worst-case scenario: Not only did the asteroid hit with a steeply-inclined trajectory — 45 to 60 degrees to horizontal, according to Nature — it also crash-landed near a coastline. If the Chicxulub impactor had come in a little less hot or hit farther out to sea, the outcome might have been problematic rather than pandemoneum.   This leads to the biggest problem with our prehistoric impactor: climate change. Not the current kind that comes with political and scientific push-pull, but the kind that likely caused a drop in temperature almost immediately thanks to volcanic aerosols. While temperature levels returned to near-normal in a matter of years, it took decades to overcome initial impact deficits. Not surprisingly, this wasn't ideal for dinosaurs — almost overnight, their habitats worldwide were destroyed.   Let's Talk Traps   There's no denying the massive impact — both figuratively and literally — of the Chicxulub impactor. But while its massive size seems like the kind of thing that ends arguments, the confirmation of out-of-this-world cratering started an entirely new set of speculations around exactly what killed the dinosaurs.   It all comes down to the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary, which marks the transition from one historical period to the next and ushers in the framework for more familiar terrestrial life. Though an explosion with the force of 100 million tons of TNT can't possibly be good for life on Earth, there's evidence to suggest that the Chicxulub impact predates the K-T boundary by up to 300,000 years and can't be the direct cause of dinosaur demise.   Volcanoes are another option — wild volcanism is historically associated with significant extinction events, and as noted by Ars Technica, the end of the Cretaceous period saw massive eruptions along the Deccan Traps, in turn burying most of what's now India under lava and causing significant climatic change. While variable volcanism actually drives temperature increases that could offset some of the asteroid-induced atmospheric occlusion, volcanic ash poses its own problems for dinosaurs just trying to survive. While both asteroid and exploding mountains likely contributed to the end of dinosaur existence, that doesn't stop experts and amateurs from championing their personal best-fit theory for Cretaceous calamity.   Significant Impact   Meteors and asteroids play an undeniable role in Earth's history, ranging from the mildly curious — such as King Tut's meteorite dagger — to the massively catastrophic, such as the Chicxulub impactor. And while debate remains over the exact level of disparate dinosaur destruction caused by this outer space interloper, there's no denying that dinosaurs can lay claim to one of the worst days in Earth's history. 

The Chicxulub Crater: Of Asteroids and Armageddon

Jane Goodall fundamentally changed our understanding of chimpanzees, and she dedicated her life to animal welfare and conservation. Born in London in 1934, she was passionate about animals from a young age, but career options were extremely limited for women in science. "There was no thought of becoming a scientist, because girls weren't scientists like that in those days," Goodall told the New York Times. She read about Doctor Doolittle and Tarzan and dreamed of living with wild animals in Africa, but completed secretarial school and started a career working in advertising. Her scientific career took off when in 1960, she had the opportunity to travel to Kenya to visit a friend. A 26-Year Chimpanzee Study While she was in Kenya, Goodall met the influential anthropologist Louis Leakey and quickly impressed him with her work ethic and knowledge of animals. Leakey secured a grant for Goodall to study chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania, where she made groundbreaking observations that revealed that chimps are highly intelligent and social animals. She corrected common misunderstandings of chimpanzees and revealed that they aren't the gentle vegetarians that we expected. They're actually omnivorous animals that exhibit social behaviors such as affectionate displays of tight family bonds and warfare. Goodall's study redefined the line between humans and animals when she observed chimps breaking twigs from trees, removing the leaves, and poking them into termite mounds to retrieve the bugs and eat them. This proved that some animals are capable of using and making tools — a skill that had previously differentiated people from animals. At age 26, she was already one of the greatest field scientists of the 20th century, according to National Geographic. An Accidental Activist  Like many great women in science, Goodall persisted with life's work even when society expected her to solely focus on being a wife and mother (which she also was). She skipped her undergraduate degree and went straight for a doctorate. According to Britannica, in 1965 she earned a Ph.D. in ethology (the science of animal behavior). Goodall and her family lived at Gombe and continued to study the chimpanzees for 26 years. In 1986, she was compelled to leave her fieldwork and focus on activism. While at a conference on chimp behavior in different environments, Goodall attended a session on conservation. She learned that habitats were being destroyed, chimpanzees were being poached and growing human populations were encroaching on the chimps' forests. "I went to the conference as a scientist, and I left as an activist," she told the New York Times. In the years since this epiphany, through the Jane Goodall Institute and affiliated organizations, Goodall has advocated for animal welfare and conservation. She has written books and articles that educate the public and at age 86, she continues to travel the world to inspire people to protect animals and their habitats. Her comprehensive study of chimpanzees helped us understand the human relationship to chimpanzees and other endangered species. In Gombe, she discovered that people were exploiting the land and animals because they were facing hardships of poverty and lack of education and healthcare. By addressing those challenges, she was able to improve the lives of the people and the chimps at Gombe. This model evolved the way we approach conservation today.

How Chimpanzee Expert Jane Goodall Became an Activist

What's the origin of life on Earth? It's an incredibly old mystery we still don't have the answer to. What we do know is that life began on this planet sometime between 4.5 billion years ago — the age of the Earth — and 3.4 billion years ago, which is the age of the oldest fossils we've found, according to New Scientist. Previously, scientists had been unsure of whether the chemical process that got life started occurred all at once as a sort of Big Bang or happened more gradually. But now, a study recently published in Nature is introducing a new story of what started life on Earth. According to the scientists who authored this paper, lightning strikes may have been the literal spark that got life started on our planet. The Prevailing Theory: Meteorites As Space.com points out, phosphorous is one of the building blocks of life and may have been the fuel that propelled the chemical reactions that lead to the development of life. But this element is a solid at room temperature and mostly found in rocks. How, then, was it released in order to propel the formation of life? Until now, the prevailing theory has been that phosphorous may have arrived on early Earth through meteorite impacts, according to a study from the University of South Florida. This theory says that these space rocks contained schreibersite, which dissolves in water. If these meteorites crashed into the ocean, the phosphorous would have been released, spurring the creation of life. However, there's a problem with this theory: Researchers have posited that there weren't enough meteorite impacts during this period in Earth's history to create enough phosphorous to jump-start the chemical reaction for life. As a result, scientists have been looking for alternative explanations for the origins of life on this planet. Lightning Strikes as a Source of Phosphorous There's an abundance of phosphorous within Earth's rocks — more than enough to jump-start life — but outside of meteorites, these components are not soluble in water. Therefore, there's no way for the phosphorous to escape. Fulgurite, which is created when lightning strikes Earth, contains phosphorous that is taken from surrounding rocks. And it does, in fact, dissolve in water, as MIT Technology Review explains. The Earth had volatile weather during this period of its history, and lightning impacted the Earth's surface trillions of times. The authors of the new Nature study determined that there would have been more than enough phosphorous released to be key to the origin of life on Earth — forming 10-1000 kg of phosphide and 100-10,000 kg of phosphite and hypophosphite per year. Not only could lightning strikes have been a major source of phosphorous for the creation of early life, but these storms occurred regularly, primarily in tropical regions of the Earth. That means there was a continual supply of phosphorous to ensure that chemical reactions had enough fuel to progress. Life on Other Planets This discovery is especially important because understanding what started life on Earth can help us understand how it might develop on other worlds. We've already used phosphorous as a key factor when it comes to looking for life on other planets. For example, a well-publicized study in 2020 announced the discovery of phosphine gas in Venus's atmosphere, as the New York Times reports. This revelation led many to pronounce that we were well on our way to discovering life on our sister planet. But since then, many have cast doubt on the claim, as three separate studies have since failed to come to the same conclusion and did not find phosphine in Venus's atmosphere, according to National Geographic. Even if Venus does not harbor life, it's important to understand the source of the phosphorous that jump-started life on this world, so we can look at other planets with heavy lightning activity as possible candidates for the development of life. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery in science, technology and engineering.

Lightning Could Hold the Key to the Origin of Life on Earth

Key Takeaways  Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet after the discovery of Eris in 2003. Some Pluto proponents argue that the term "planet" is frequently misused and Pluto should get its status back. Other scientists argue that Pluto is simply one of many objects in the Kuiper belt and shouldn't get special treatment.Pluto is making headlines again. After its much-lamented demotion to "dwarf planet" status in 2006, new research housed on Science Direct suggests that historical use of the word "planet" — not International Astronomical Union (IAU) votes — should inform the designation of astronomical objects. There's passion and precedent on both sides of the debate, so let's dive in to this Pluto discovery debacle: Is historical precedent superseded by the IAU's 2006 decision? Or is Pluto a planet again?Pluto PrimerAs noted by Astronomy.com, Pluto was discovered on Feb. 18th, 1930, by Clyde W. Tombaugh at the Lowell Observatory. Given its apparent size and distance from the sun — and the limitations of early 20th-century telescope technology — Pluto was hailed as the ninth planet. Designation aside, it's an interesting world; according to NASA, it's one-sixth the width of Earth, is 3.6 million miles away from the the sun and has five orbiting moons.Changing the GameIn 2003, however, astronomers discovered an object larger than Pluto — named Eris — orbiting farther from the sun, said Cal Tech. Combined with data on other Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNO), such as Sedna, the IAU created a committee to reevaluate how we define planets.Historically, two criteria were used: Planets must orbit around the sun and have sufficient gravity to assume a nearly-round shape. The IAU decision added a third caveat, that planets must "clear the neighborhood around their orbit," meaning that they must be the only object of substantial size in their local region.Pluto easily meets the first two criteria, but fails the third. The result? Pluto — along with Eris, Sedna and other large TNOs — were re-classified as "dwarf planets."Making the Case: Pluto Is Number NineMuch of the drive to reclaim Pluto's status stems from a sense of familiarity; we've always known Pluto as a planet, so why not reverse the decision to keep things simple?"The Reclassification of Asteroids from Planets to Non-planets," published on Science Direct, examines the use of the word "planet" in scientific literature published since 1802. According to researcher and lead author of the study Philip Metzger, "We now have a list of well over 100 recent examples of planetary scientists using the word planet in a way that violates the IAU definition, but they are doing it because it's functionally useful."For Metzger and other Pluto-as-a-planet supporters, planetary taxonomy and geophysical differences should determine celestial body status — not IAU voting. Their verdict? Pluto was, and is, planet number nine.Rebuttal: Not so Fast, Dwarf PlanetAs noted above, the discovery of new TNOs made it clear that Pluto wasn't the biggest, farthest object orbiting the sun. Evolving technology and detection methods revealed that Pluto is part of the Kuiper Belt, a ring of dwarf planets, ice balls and comets that number in the trillions and orbit beyond Neptune, said Popular Science. In fact, new research by Mike Brown and Konstantin Batygin, who helped discover Eris and led the down-with-Pluto movement, suggests that another, super-massive "Planet Nine" may account for odd orbits of many TNOs and be the rightful successor to Pluto's planetary crown, according to Scientific American.For dwarf-planet drivers, the demotion of Pluto isn't problematic. The world remains compelling, and concern around the third criteria set out by the IAU — how we can discover if extrasolar objects have "cleared their neighborhood" — has been addressed by recent scientific work. UCLA professor Jean-Luc Margot discovered that if you know the mass of an object, its orbital distance/period and the lifetime of its planetary system, it's possible to determine if the object meets IAU criteria with 99 percent accuracy.Classifying the CosmosWhat's the big deal with the planet/dwarf planet debate? It starts with the Pluto discovery: Despite more recent data, it's hard to shake 75 years of Pluto-as-a-planet literature, research and mnemonic devices like "My Very Excellent Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas."The problem? New discoveries — such as the TRAPPIST-1 system, which boasts seven Earth-sized planets and three within the star's "habitable zone" — demand the most accurate information possible as humankind looks to touch the stars. While Pluto and similar worlds offer massive research potential, the IAU's decision helps narrow the definition of planet to one that more closely matches what we observe on Earth and could help inform the future of habitable planet exploration.Is Pluto a Planet?So what is Pluto's status? It depends on your perspective. New IAU criteria append the "dwarf" label and remove its planetary designation; historical use suggests that geophysical features may be the ideal differentiator between terms and evolving scientific consensus will determine the best nomenclature.Planet or not, Pluto gets plenty of attention — hopefully leading to continuing debate that helps drive public curiosity about the structure, scale and scope of our solar system.From next-generation telescopes to rocket boosters and moon missions, Northrop Grumman goes all-in on space exploration. See how. 

Pluto Discovery Debacle: Is Pluto a Planet?

The Voyager 1 and 2 probes have been on a journey through space for more than 40 years. Launched in 1977, they are now well beyond Pluto's orbit. In 2012, Voyager 1 entered interstellar space and is now the most distant human-made object from the Earth. Voyager 2 entered interstellar space in November 2018. Both spacecraft carry an identical message from Earth for any extraterrestrial beings who happen to find them, the Voyager golden record. These spacecraft are still gathering and transmitting scientific information through the Deep Space Network, allowing scientists to learn more about this unexplored region. What's Playing? Voyager 1 and 2, like Pioneer 10 and 11 before them, inspired hope for extraterrestrial communication. What if someday in the distant future, these remarkable things sent to space were found by extraterrestrial spacefarers? Visionary team members of these deep space missions felt that it was important to communicate the story of humanity. To this end, Pioneers 10 and 11 carried small metal plaques basically describing their place of origin in the Milky Way galaxy. The Voyager golden record was more ambitious, intended to encapsulate the essence of humanity as a kind of time capsule. Each record is a 12-inch gold-plated copper disk, encased in a protective aluminum cover. Each includes a phonograph cartridge and a needle, along with instructions in symbolic language on how to play the record. Each Voyager golden record contains 115 images encoded in analog form as well as a variety of sounds designed to describe the life and culture of planet Earth to extraterrestrials. Natural sounds are included, such as those made by wind, thunder and a variety of animals. Also included is a wide selection of music from different human eras and cultures and spoken greetings from people in 55 languages. Finally, the record includes printed messages from former U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Kurt Waldheim, United Nations Secretary-General from 1972 to 1981. The Voyager Golden Record Pioneers The initiative to create the Voyager golden records was led by astronomer Dr. Carl Sagan of Cornell University. According to the New Yorker, in 1976, Sagan was visiting with his friends, science writers Timothy Ferris and Ann Druyan. Sagan was enthusiastic about the idea of communication with intelligent extraterrestrials and had helped design the plaques for the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft. He asked Ferris and Druyan to help him create something better for Voyager. As Ferris recalled, "We immediately agreed. Soon, he [Sagan] and one of his colleagues at Cornell, Frank Drake, had decided on a record. By the time NASA approved the idea, we had less than six months to put it together, so we had to move fast." What Will Extraterrestrials Make of This? We simply don't know enough about our universe to determine if extraterrestrials exist. If they do, what is the probability that they will find Voyager golden records? Will they figure out how to access the content? The symbolic instructions are mostly technical in nature, and an advanced spacefaring civilization might well be able to meet this challenge. Interpretation of the content is another matter entirely. Even if they do gain access, will they have any understanding of what they have found? No matter how hard we try to put ourselves in alien shoes (do they wear shoes?), it's difficult to think beyond our own human-centric viewpoint. There are those who argue that the Voyager golden record message of human cultural diversity will be confusing rather than explanatory. Rebecca Orchard and Sheri Wells-Jensen at Bowling Green State University in Ohio studied the content and considered how intelligent extraterrestrial beings might misinterpret it. For example, the records contain images and sounds that are not correlated. If extraterrestrials tried to match the sounds with objects in the images, human culture might appear to be very strange. "What if you pair the image of an open daffodil with the roar of a chainsaw?" asked Orchard. Even if they are unable to understand the message, the fact that these records were included on these interstellar spacecraft is a message in itself: Humans are explorers, and we've done our best to tell the universe who we are. As Carl Sagan noted, "The spacecraft will be encountered and the record played only if there are advanced spacefaring civilizations in interstellar space. But the launching of this bottle into the cosmic ocean says something very hopeful about life on this planet." Outward Bound: Tracking Things Sent to Space You can keep track of these spacecraft at JPL's Voyager Mission Status page. Voyager 1 is now about 13.5 billion miles from Earth, Voyager 2 about 11.2 billion miles. They have traveled beyond the heliopause, the theoretical boundary where the sun's solar wind is stopped by the interstellar medium, and have reached what is considered to be interstellar space. The Road Less Traveled: Where Are They Going? It will be quite a while before the Voyager spacecraft make a close approach to any other planetary system. Voyager 1 is leaving the solar system at a speed of approximately 325 million miles per year, heading toward the constellation Ophiuchus. In about 38,200 years, it will pass within 1.7 light-years of a star called AC+79 3888 in the constellation Ursa Minor. Voyager 2 is moving at a speed of about 288 million miles per year, toward the constellations of Sagittarius and Pavo. In about 40,000 years, it will pass within about 1.7 light-years of a star named Ross 248, a small star in the Andromeda constellation.  Will we eventually lose track of the Voyagers? Each spacecraft is equipped with a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), which puts out 4 fewer watts of electrical power each year as its plutonium fuel decays. The Voyager team prioritizes which instruments to keep on as the available power diminishes. Both spacecrafts are expected to continue operating with at least one science instrument until around 2025. They will remain in range of the Deep Space Network through about 2036. After that, the available power to transmit a signal back to Earth will fade away, and these magnificent lonely wanderers will disappear from observable human experience.

The Legacy of the Voyager Golden Record

Francis Crick was a biologist and neuroscientist whose story is intertwined with the fascinating history of DNA discovery. Crick is best known for discovering the helix structure of DNA, a discovery that changed the face of science as we know it.    Early Life   Crick was born on June 8, 1916, in Northampton, England. After primary school, he headed to University College London in 1937, where he studied physics and earned his Ph.D. in 1954, according to Biography.com.   Crick's scientific career was unfortunately interrupted by World War II. During this period, he joined a military research team focused on the development of magnetic and acoustic mines. This work was interesting to him, according to the National Library of Medicine, but not interesting enough to keep him on a military track after the war ended. After the war, Crick moved to Cambridge to study biology with the support of a scholarship from the Medical Research Council.   The History of DNA Discovery   In 1951, Francis Crick met an American scientist named James Watson at the Cavendish Lab in Cambridge, which is where their famed collaboration began. In 1953, the duo constructed a model of the double helix shape we now associate with DNA. They speculated that if you split one side of the ladder from the other, each side would become a pattern for a new strand of DNA. This explanation was later used to inform the scientific understanding of how genes are replicated, Biography.com noted.   Who Received the Credit?   Crick and Watson became known as the scientists who discovered DNA's double helix structure after they published a groundbreaking paper in Nature in April 1953. However, their research relied primarily on work from the lesser known female chemist Rosalind Franklin. Franklin would not receive credit for her contribution to the research until after her death. Her male colleague, Maurice Wilkins, shared her research with Crick and Watson without her consent, while Watson, Crick and Wilkins received the Nobel Prize for their DNA work in 1962.   Crick's Legacy   While minor changes have been made to the Watson and Crick model of DNA, it remains otherwise similar to its original construction from 1953. Based on Watson and Crick's research, we know that DNA is a double-stranded helix. We also know that the two strands are connected by hydrogen bonds, with A bases mostly paired with Ts, while C bases are mostly paired with Gs. Nature also noted that most DNA double helices are right-handed and anti-parallel.   Crick continued to study molecular biology for the remainder of his life, and he wrote several books on the topic. He won many other prestigious science awards, including the Prix Charles Leopold Meyer of the French Academy of Sciences in 1961 and the Award of Merit of the Gairdner Foundation in 1962. He died in La Jolla, California in 2004 at the age of 88. 

Francis Crick and the History of DNA Discovery

The club-wielding, wild-haired caveman is a staple of modern myth and entertainment. Despite an evolving body of research that shows our ancestors as more human and less animal-like than previously believed, there's something about the concept of cavemen and cavewomen that remains deeply rooted in our psyche.
But where did cavemen come from? Where did they first appear, what were they really like and what definitively set them apart from their animal counterparts? Grab your club, heft your spear and let's go hunt down the answers.
When Did Humans First Appear on Earth?
According to Smithsonian Magazine, analysis of teeth and bones from Spain's Sima de los Huesos — the Pit of Bones — suggested that a common ancestor of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens lived between 550,000 and 750,000 years ago. The broad range is because genetic analysis isn't like carbon dating. Instead, scientists use what's known as the molecular clock to backtrack the evolution of Neanderthal DNA found in the Pit of Bones and determine when it might have overlapped with Homo sapiens.
When it comes to the oldest version of our current human lineage, the timeline moves up substantially to around 300,000 years. This is in line with what we expect from evolution — a common Neanderthal/human ancestor that appeared approximately 600,000 years ago followed by genetic differentiation as members of the group spread out across different continents and climates.
While both Neanderthals and our own ancestors initially flourished, it was Homo sapiens who eventually became the dominant hominid species. Research suggests several possible explanations for this outcome, including infighting among Neanderthal groups and dwindling food supplies as climate change caused the extinction of some Neanderthal sustenance staples.
As noted by the Natural History Museum, however, there's evidence to suggest that interbreeding between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals may have also contributed to their extinction. While interbreeding occurred regularly, there's a lack of Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA in modern humans. Since this DNA only comes from the female parent, it suggests that successful births were more likely with male Neanderthals and female Homo sapiens, in effect creating a scenario in which offspring are only produced in one direction.
The Dual-Track Concept
So, where did cavemen come from? Studies have typically suggested a tree-like genome model that sees Homo sapiens evolving from a single ancestral population somewhere in Africa. The exact location of this ancestor population has changed over time, with some scientists suggesting eastern or southern Africa as the Homo sapiens' starting point.
Problems arise, however, when trying to reconcile evidence of Homo sapiens habitation across the African continent at least 300,000 years ago. While a single ancestor model makes sense on paper, it starts to fall apart given the sheer scope of human migration.
To help shed light on our history, an international research team examined 290 genomes of people from southern, eastern and western Africa, along with Eurasia. The results of the study suggest that instead of a single Homo sapiens ancestor, merger events created two groups that gave rise to our caveman cousins.
The first merger occurred around 120,000 years ago and gave rise to the Khoe-San population of southern Africa. The second occurred approximately 100,000 years ago and accounts for the ancestors of eastern and western Africans, along with populations outside of Africa.
The Social-Cognitive Separation
Before digging deeper, let's stop and think about what makes us human. Common theories include tool use and brain capacity, but studies with human children and their chimpanzee cousins show a commonality of intellect and ability — up to a certain point.
The differentiator comes in humans' ability to combine cognitive capacity and social strategy. For example, while both toddlers and chimpanzees were able to mimic the actions of another of their species, once human children mastered their given task, they began experimenting, while chimpanzees made no effort to move beyond the basics.
Sometimes called the "ratchet effect," it's the idea that humans continuously improve on tools or techniques used by their predecessors, and over time, these improvements ratchet up to create much more effective variations. As Scientific American points out, this might start with a lobbed stone projectile, which becomes a spear, then a bow and arrow, then a bullet and, eventually, a ballistic missile.
But intellect only tells half of the story. The other ability that sets humans apart is social mind-reading. It works like this: While both chimps and humans are social species capable of cooperation, only humans can make cognitive leaps that are implied rather than explicit. In one experiment, infants used blocks on a plate to make a tower. When the available supply of blocks ran out, the children pointed at the plate, which signaled to adults that the child wanted more. Chimpanzees doing the same task would use all available blocks and then simply stop.
In addition, human children quickly learn to read other humans' emotions and work together to achieve common goals. While chimps have some of this capability, their mind-reading is used for competition — information learned about another chimpanzee is used to outcompete them for food or mates.
Put simply, what makes us human isn't what we are, but what we do.
Have Club, Will Travel
When did humans first appear on Earth? Turns out that humanity as we know it didn't start with a straight line. Instead, we share a common ancestor with Neanderthals that's likely more than half a million years old. What's more, cavemen didn't come from a single ancestral lineage — in fact, at least two populations are now thought to underpin the modern human condition.
Perhaps most telling, however, is what sets us apart from our nearest living relatives: the ability to cooperate for the common good using a combination of social skills, the drive to experiment and the willingness to work out a compromise.
Are you interested science and innovation? We are, too. Check out what life is like at Northrop Grumman, or explore career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Where Did Cavemen Come From? New Studies Suggest a Dual-Track Model 

 When you first learned about DNA, you likely saw images of the beautiful double helix structure in your textbook — but you probably haven't heard about the woman who initially discovered that structure, and it's time for her to get her dues.Early Years English native Rosalind Franklin decided to become a scientist when she was 15. This was an uncommon decision for a young woman in 1930s London, and her father was against higher education for women entirely: He wanted Rosalind to become a social worker, not a scientist. But she would not be dissuaded. In 1941, Rosalind Franklin graduated from Newnham College, Cambridge, with a degree in science. For several years after graduation, Franklin worked at the British Coal Utilization Research Association on a graduate fellowship, where she contributed to important research on coal and graphite, and earned her Ph.D. Then she moved on to the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de L'Etat, run by Jacques Mering, where she did her post-doctoral research and became an expert in X-ray crystallography. Eventually, Franklin moved back to London to work in John Randall's lab at King's College in London, where she met Maurice Wilkins. And although she and Wilkins were colleagues, he initially misunderstood her role and thought she was a technical assistant, which set the tone for the rest of their relationship. This assumption was common at the college, where only males were allowed in the university dining room, and all the men hung out at a men-only pub after work.Photo 51 Rosalind Franklin, for her part, was not dissuaded by this blatantly gendered behavior. She continued to work hard in Randall's lab, focusing on the X-ray diffraction studies that would eventually facilitate the double helix theory of DNA. One of Franklin's X-ray photographs, nicknamed Photo 51, spurred new thinking about the shape of DNA for the men in the lab, and that research was ultimately published under Wilkins' name in the journal Nature with little-to-no mention of Franklin. She ultimately left the lab after two years due to disagreements with her lab director, Randall, and Wilkins. Rosalind Franklin died of ovarian cancer in 1958 at age 37. She spent her final years working on research concerning the molecular structure of viruses, for which her team member, Aaron Klug, would eventually win a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1982. Four years after her death in 1962, Wilkins and two of his colleagues won the Nobel Prize for their discovery of the double-helix model of DNA, based on a photo taken by Franklin. Franklin's relentless research and courage weren't mentioned because the Nobel Committee doesn't make posthumous nominations, although that decision was highly contentious. While times have changed, the value of unflappable tenacity has not. Northrop Grumman is looking for innovators like Franklin who believe in breaking boundaries — people who want to tackle problems that society says can't be solved. If this sounds like you, check out their careers page.

Rosalind Franklin's Discovery is in Everyone's DNA

   In an era when long-distance communication was achieved by sending signals over telegraph wires, Italian electrical engineer Guglielmo Marconi was one of a handful of researchers who suspected invisible radio waves might offer a better solution. Despite failing his college entrance exams, Marconi (1874—1937) went on to conduct some of the most important technological experiments in history, pioneering long-distance radio transmission and becoming one of the world's most famous inventors, a successful entrepreneur and a Nobel Prize winner.    Enable targeting cookies to view this content.   Although others explored the same idea, Marconi successfully commercialized emerging radio technology. His work became the foundation for radio, television, satellites, radar and the internet.      Experiments, Patents and Commercial Success    It didn't hurt that, in addition to being a brilliant inventor, he had family connections and wealth on his side. As a young man, Marconi was privately educated, and he transformed the top floor of his family's Italian estate into a working laboratory for his experiments.  After reading an article about Heinrich Hertz's groundbreaking work with electromagnetic radiation, Marconi was determined to build a device to transmit radio waves over long distances. In 1895, at the age of 21, Marconi successfully sent wireless signals over a distance of one and a half miles. Next, he wirelessly communicated over a 12-mile distance and was granted the world's first patent for a system of wireless telegraphy. Over the following decade, he continued to stretch the technology across greater distances and found commercial success outside of the lab. In 1899, he established wireless communication between France and England across the English Channel and founded the Marconi Telegraph Company.    While his business grew, Marconi continued to patent new inventions and achieve milestones in developing radio communication. In 1900, he was granted a patent for "tuned or syntonic telegraphy" and in 1901, he sent and received the first wireless signals across the Atlantic Ocean, 2,100 miles from his now-famous Poldhu station in England to Newfoundland. This experiment disproved the common misconception that the earth's curvature would affect the way wireless signals transmitted on electromagnetic waves.    In 1902, he patented a magnetic detector that became the standard receiver for wireless communications for many years. In 1905, he patented his horizontal directional aerial, and in 1912, Marconi patented a "timed spark" system for generating continuous waves. He later transmitted wireless messages between Poldhu and stations at Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, and Cape Cod, Massachusetts. In 1907, Marconi opened the first transatlantic commercial service between Glace Bay and Clifden, Ireland. In 1912, Marconi's wireless system was used by the crew of the RMS Titanic to send life-saving distress signals.    Legacy Beyond Radio    During World War I, Guglielmo Marconi served in the Italian army and navy, where he achieved the rank of commander. He was sent on diplomatic missions to the United States and France. After the war, he continued his research on short-wave radio technology, picking up where his earliest experiments had left off.    During the 1920s, he conducted trials between experimental installations at Poldhu Station and his yacht "Elettra," his floating home and perpetual laboratory. His later work led to the "beam system" for long-distance communication, which was adopted by the British government in 1926 as a design for international communication. Marconi's research on the propagation characteristics of shorter waves led to microwave transmission. He also contributed to the development of radar systems that are still being used for military missions and scientific pursuits.    He was one of the lucky inventors to be recognized during his own time, but he was also the subject of controversy. His telegraph company was criticized for having a near-monopoly on the global wireless communications industry. Additionally, several of his patents were challenged and restored to other inventors. In 1943, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld Tesla's radio patent number 645,576.    Ultimately, Marconi is remembered as the pioneer of radio. By the end of his career, he had received countless honors and international awards, such as the John Fritz Medal, the Kelvin Medal and the Italian Military Medal for his war service. He also shared the Nobel Prize in physics with Karl Braun in 1909.    Marconi's experiments, which are on display at the National Electronics Museum in Linthicum, Maryland, were instrumental in developing the wireless technology we use today in Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, smartphones and Internet of Things applications. His fundamental research remains essential as modern Marconis continue to push the limits of the ways we can make the most of radio waves.

You Can Thank Guglielmo Marconi for Your Favorite Wireless Devices

In the beginning, there were electronic brains. That was the name that newspapers gave to the first digital computers in the postwar 1940s, described by the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) as "vast, unreliable beasts built with vacuum tubes and mercury memory."  One of the standout engineers who wrestled with these vast, unreliable beasts was Seymour Cray, a young World War II veteran and Wisconsin native. As a boy during the 1930s, he used Erector Set components to build a device that read in paper-punched tape and converted the hole pattern to Morse code signals, according to the Star Tribune. This innovative spirit would help Cray become known as the father of supercomputing.  A Technology Frontier  In 1950, while still in college, Seymour Cray went to work for a company called Engineering Research Associates (ERA) that built code-breaking technology and also dipped its toes into the newly emerging technology of digital computers.  Cray first made his mark, according to ACM, with the ERA 1103, also known as the UNIVAC 1103. It was the first commercially successful scientific computer.  In the late 1950s, Cray joined several colleagues from ERA in starting a new company, Control Data Corporation (CDC). But Cray was growing tired of designing ordinary 1950s commercial computers. His goal aimed higher than that, reports the ACM: He wanted to design the largest computer in the world.  "The Largest Computer in the World"  The very expression takes us into a very different era of computing. Computers could take up an entire room — or even an entire floor of a building. Desktop computers didn't exist yet, let alone handheld computing devices like smartphones. What Seymour Cray really wanted was to design the fastest computer in the world.  And that was exactly what he went on to do. His key insight was that while the central processing unit (CPU) does the actual computing in a computer, building a fast computer took more than just a fast processor. Without faster input and output, a fast processor would be left to twiddle its electronic thumbs while it waited for information to get in and out. Said Cray, per ACM, "Anyone can build a fast CPU. The trick is to build a fast system."  Performing that trick meant a lot of attention to detail. He adjusted the lengths of wires so that input signals that were needed at the same time would all actually arrive at the same time, and the system wouldn't have to wait for one signal that came through a longer wire.  Maximum speed also meant additional focus on the cooling system. Cray built an interlock so that a cooling failure would automatically shut down the computer before it could overheat. When a customer called about a problem with a computer encased in ice, Cray realized that the interlock needed to go both ways. The customer's computer had shut down due to a transient power loss, but the cooling system had kept on going, hence the solid block of ice, according to IEE Computer Society.  His work culminated in 1976 with the Cray-1. In its day it was the fastest multipurpose computer in the world, rivaled only by a single one-off machine that could match its speed for highly specialized tasks, reports IEE Computer Society. Supercomputers entered the vocabulary of the technology world. And the name Seymour Cray was all but synonymous with supercomputing.  Speed Goes On  Supercomputer technology was well-established by the time Cray died in 1996. By that time desktop computing was also widespread, and home computers could match the performance of Cray's pioneering efforts.  The internet was also taking off. By the turn of the new century, the popular conversation centered more on computer networks than on even the most powerful individual computers. Today, companies that might once have invested in a Cray machine are more likely to invest in cloud computing, relying on external networks without even knowing what actual machines are doing the work.  But supercomputer technology continues to progress. Current generation machines have achieved speeds in the petaFLOPS — around 10 million times faster than the original Cray-1. Both the Department of Energy and NOAA are working on a new generation that will be at least 10 times faster.  Even Seymour Cray would likely be impressed. 

Seymour Cray and the Birth of the Supercomputer

If you could go back in time to 1950 and have Alan Turing speak to a chatbot with a smartphone, he might declare a winner of his test to determine if a computer was "intelligent." With the invention of the mobile phone 23 years away and the voice-powered virtual assistant inside smartphones even further in the future, no one in Turing's time would have imagined that computers could be as advanced as the ones we take for granted today — or that they could also fit inside a pocket. At its essence, the Turing Test challenges computer scientists to create a program with a conversational ability that a judge can't distinguish from a human. Some scientists contend that taken at face value, the test has already been aced by AI-supported chatbots. Surely, at some point, you've wondered if the "representative" answering your question on a company's website was either a well-programmed chatbot or a human being. But just because we can be occasionally tricked into thinking that a chatbot is human doesn't mean the 70-year-old Turing Test is in any way dated, that it could apply only to an era when the expectations of computers were lower, when large mainframes didn't actually speak and the idea of a chatbot would have seemed like science fiction. The test, in fact, is even more important today as artificial intelligence gains new abilities, as well as prompting us to consider what it means to be human. The ability to understand artificial intelligence can give us insights into our strengths and weaknesses as humans. "For artificial intelligence to fully pass the Turing Test, it would have to understand what it means to be human," said Bruce Swett, the chief AI architect at Northrop Grumman. "We have all sorts of relationships that define us — with children, parents, friends, colleagues, groups, and organizations. There is a matrix of social interconnectedness that we intuitively know. No AI model understands that yet. That will take a long time." Turing and Computing A polymath if there ever was one, Alan Turing was a mathematician, computer scientist, biologist and even a philosopher. He was also a cryptanalyst, and his first claim to fame was cracking the Enigma code that German armed forces used to obscure messages of military strategy during World War II. By breaking what the Germans thought was an unbreakable code, Allied forces were able to avoid Nazi submarines that had sought to destroy military and commercial cargo ships. But even before the war, Turing believed in the power of computing. He invented the Universal Turing Machine, which isn't a machine but rather a formula. According to Andrew Hodges, who wrote the biography "Alan Turing: The Enigma," this formula allows a machine to tackle "any well-defined task by being supplied with the appropriate program." This was a profound concept. It was the precursor to the type of computing we use and rely on today. As Hodges wrote: The "Universal Turing Machine naturally exploits what was later seen as the 'stored program' concept essential to the modern computer: it embodies the crucial twentieth-century insight that symbols representing instructions are no different in kind from symbols representing numbers. But computers, in this modern sense, didn't exist in 1936. Turing created these concepts out of his mathematical imagination." The Turing Test Expanded Recognizing the potential of computing, Turing wondered if machines could ever possess intelligence on a par with, or even surpass that of, humans — so in 1950 he created his famous challenge. Known by its creator as "The Imitation Game," the Turing Test tries to discern whether a computer can mimic human intelligence. In the Turing Test, a judge exchanges texts with participants using computers, but can't see the participants. The participants are either a human or a computer program that attempts to trick the judge into believing it's human through its ability to communicate intelligently via text. It's widely believed that no computing program has passed the test, but one came close. In 2014, a program convinced 10 out of 30 judges of an AI competition at the Royal Society in London that it was a 13-year-old Ukrainian by the name of Eugene Goostman. At the time, many scientists disputed that "Eugene" had actually passed the test, although one of the program's creators found a silver lining in the results, telling The Guardian, "I think we passed 'a' Turing test, but I don't know if it's 'the' Turing test." Turing believed that a computer would win his Imitation Game by 2000, said Bruce Swett, who is a Northrop Grumman Fellow. Informally, AI-powered chatbots are, in fact, beating the Turing challenge now, as they often convince people that the chatbot is another human, Swett said. However, occasionally convincing a person that an AI program is human is not the same as passing a formal Turing Test. As it was conceived, the Turing Test is limited to one sensory "channel," a written conversation that's separated by a metaphorical curtain, Swett said. The judge doesn't get visual or auditory input, which would make it easier to decide whether the message came from a human or an AI. But now, as AI capabilities develop, Turing's test should be expanded conceptually, he said. For example, we're now interacting with AI through sight and sound instead of just text, a prompt to expand the Turing Test and include more of the five senses in distinguishing what's human and what isn't. "AI-generated deepfake capabilities can convincingly create a lifelike video of someone doing something — like giving a speech — that they never did," Swett said. These additional sensory channels will need to be included in future versions of the Turing Test to fully challenge emerging AI capabilities. Finding Ourselves in the Computers A computer algorithm that passes an enhanced Turing Test would have to interact with the world in a way that humans do, Swett said. "We're amazingly good at making sense of the environment around us. We use our senses and really have a rich, integrated understanding of the environment, identifying people, animals, objects, and locations. That provides a context to understand the world around us by using our sensory experience." For instance, we understand cats by observing them, touching them, listening to them hiss, Swett said. "Our brain pulls together all that detailed sensory information and brings it into any discussion about cats, including predictions about how we think a cat will behave. Similarly from a motor context, when we see someone else kicking a ball, a part of our brain actually warms up the process that prepares us to kick a ball. We understand our world from our sensory and physical interactions with it." For AI to not only pass an enhanced Turing Test but to function on a level with humans, such AI programs would need to be, in some way, embodied like humans. This would allow the AI to interact with the environment, collecting sensory and physical interactions. "To move from current, narrow artificial intelligence to artificial general intelligence, the AI would have to understand what it means to be human," Swett said. From there, it could fully understand what makes a cat a cat, or what it means to kick a ball. Until then, we can observe with amazement as computing continues to advance, and equally find remarkable that a polymath who didn't own an iPhone saw all of this coming.

The Turing Test Aims to Understand Advancing Computers

A little over 100 years ago, the National Academy of Sciences hosted a debate about a very expansive topic. In fact, the issue under debate was as large as any topic could be: the great architecture of the universe.  The Shapley-Curtis debate, as Astronomy reports, was held on April 26, 1920, at the Smithsonian Institution's Baird Auditorium. In astronomy circles, however, it goes by a different name: the Great Debate.   Clash of the Titans  The debate pitted the distinguished astronomer Heber Curtis against the much younger iconoclast Harlow Shapley, who was looking to make a name for himself (and win the directorship of prestigious Harvard College Observatory).  But what makes the Great Debate a true classic in the history of science is the way it ended. At the time, its outcome seemed inconclusive, even a bit anticlimactic. But new evidence, discovered a few years later, would show that Shapley and Curtis were both half right — and half wrong.  More than that, the great architecture of the universe turned out to be vastly larger and more complex than anyone had imagined.  Discovering the Galaxy  Since Galileo, astronomers knew that the visible Milky Way, evenly dividing the night sky, was made up of enormous numbers of distant stars. This indicated that stars were not just scattered randomly through space. Instead, the distribution of stars seemed to hint at some overall structure, more or less disk-shaped.  By 1920, astronomers had come to grips with interstellar distances. They knew that even the closest neighboring stars were thousands of times further away than the solar system's planets — and that the most distant stars they could observe must be thousands of times even more remote.  The conventional wisdom, championed in the Great Debate by Curtis, was that what we now call the Milky Way galaxy was about 10,000 to 30,000 light-years across, according to Science News. The sun, Curtis argued, lay fairly close to the center, as shown by the fact that we see roughly a comparable number of stars when we look toward opposite regions of the sky.  Shapley challenged this conventional wisdom, arguing that the galaxy must be at least 10 times larger and about 300,000 light-years across, based on the complexity of its structure and the enormous numbers of very faint stars that formed the visible Milky Way.  Moreover, said Shapley, while the distribution of (relatively nearby) stars might be similar in multiple directions, very distant clusters and nebulae appeared to be heavily concentrated in the general direction of the constellation Sagittarius. This indicated that the sun lay not near the center of the overall system, but well in its outskirts.  (Handily, NASA provides online transcripts of the original presentations in the Shapley-Curtis debate.)  Spiral Nebulae and Island Universes   One class of distant objects did not quite fit Shapley's pattern: hazy swirls known at that time as spiral nebulae. The largest and brightest lay in the northern constellation Andromeda, but no existing telescope could fully resolve their details, and no one was entirely sure what to make of them.  Curtis argued that because their spectra resembled those of stars, they might be very distant clusters of stars. So distant, in fact, that they were probably not part of the great Milky Way structure at all, but lay somewhere far outside of it.  Some astronomers had been suggesting this for decades, and had coined the term "island universes" to describe them. The implication was that they had roughly the same relationship to the Milky Way that offshore islands did to a continent.  Shapley rejected this idea. In his conception, the Milky Way was simply too vast to leave room for "island universes" or anything else beyond it. Shapley's galaxy was the universe.  An Inconclusive Debate, Then Stunning New Evidence   The Shapley-Curtis debate, as it turned out, failed to settle the size and shape of the universe. Curtis, a more experienced public speaker, was seen as having the upper hand on points, but not enough to put Shapley away. (And as Astronomy notes, Shapley did get the job as head of Harvard Observatory.)  Then, two years later, new observations of the spiral nebula in Andromeda blew up the whole debate. Astronomer Edwin Hubble (for whom the Hubble Space Telescope is named) succeeded in taking images that resolved the Andromeda object into stars — enormous numbers of them, very faint and very, very far away.  According to Science News, a disappointed Shapley remarked that Hubble's discovery "destroyed my universe." However, the Andromeda galaxy, as we now know it, helped to confirm that the Milky Way was much larger and more complex than most astronomers, including Curtis, had thought. (Though at 100,000 light-years across, the Milky Way isn't as large as Shapley thought.) Moreover, as Shapley had argued, the sun lies far from the center.  As for the universe as a whole, it turned out to be really big, billions of light-years across, thousands of times larger than anyone at the Shapley-Curtis debate would have guessed. Half right and half wrong, the contestants in the debate had only just begun to unfold the immensity of the universe. 

The Shapley Curtis Debate of 1920, or How Big Is the Universe?

Particle physics gets really strange, really fast. Everything started off simply enough with the discovery of electrons in 1897; add in neutrons and protons, and you've got the atom everyone knows and loves from chemistry class. Photons came next, then the revelation that antimatter electrons — positrons — were also possible. But the particle party was just getting started. Work by Ernest Rutherford in 1907 highlighted a concentration of mass in the atom's nucleus, but this necessitated a new particle — called the meson by Hideki Yukawa — responsible for carrying the nuclear strong force capable of holding nuclei together. While Yukawa proposed his meson in 1937, discovery didn't come until 1947 when experiments by Cecil Powell uncovered yet another new particle: the pion. But what exactly is a pion? What role does it play in particle physics? And how does it impact our understanding of small-scale interactions? Case of the Missing Meson While rapid scientific advancement in particle interactions, combinations and limitations produced substantive insight, it also gave rise to unique issues. As more sophisticated measurement tools and mathematical frameworks were developed, new challenges emerged. For example, to account for energy conservation in beta decay — in which an electron is emitted from a particle nucleus — Wolfgang Pauli proposed the neutrino in 1930. In 1956, these particles were detected at the University of California at Irvine. Hideki Yukawa also saw a potential particle problem: No strong nuclear force carriers existed under current models. So in 1935, he postulated the meson — a middleweight particle with a mass somewhere between protons and electrons — that could account for the strong force binding between neutrons and protons. Using the radius of atomic nuclei as a guide, Yukawa inferred the range of the strong nuclear force and derived a potential mass for his meson: 100 MeV/c2. And in 1936, the muon (mu meson) was discovered with a mass that was very close to Yukawa's calculation at 106 MeV/c2. But an issue quickly emerged: Further research found that muons weren't team players when it came to strong nuclear interaction. So where was the missing meson? The Pionic Man In 1947, Cecil Powell was working with high-energy cosmic rays to isolate subatomic particles at the University of Bristol along with Cesar Lattes and Giuseppe Occhialini. Without the benefit of modern-day particle accelerators, Powell leveraged a more hands-on approach by carrying specially-designed photographic plates to high altitudes on Pic-du-Midi mountain in the Pyrenees. Cosmic rays striking the plates created microscopic particle "trails" that became apparent once the plates were developed. On March 7, 1947, one of Powell's assistants found evidence of a slow-moving meson that stopped briefly and then emitted a second meson. Another emission was found the next day, indicating that the original meson had decayed, creating one new, lighter meson and a neutral particle. Upon closer inspector, this lighter meson matched the characteristics of the muon discovered 10 years earlier. The original, heavier particle was Yukawa's elusive meson. Named the pion (pi meson), this particle contains one quark and one antiquark and accounts for most of the mass in atomic nuclei. More importantly, pions are responsible for the residual strong nuclear force between protons and neutrons, in turn making it possible for nuclei to exist at all. There are three types of pions: positive, negative and neutral. Both charged pions decay in 26.033 nanoseconds (2.6003 x 10-8 seconds), while their neutral counterpart decays in just 84 attoseconds (8.4 x 10-17 seconds). Particle Potential Prior to the discovery of mesons, muons and pions, Yukawa published a 1935 paper that helped address critical issues within particle physics. Called the Yukawa potential, it takes the form:  The goal of Yukawa's work was to reconcile the results of James Chadwick's tightly-packed atomic nucleus model with the impact of electromagnetic force — at such small distances, particles inside the nucleus should be pushed apart, not pulled together. Werner Heisenberg postulated that neutrons were in fact combinations of protons and electrons; when these "composite" neutrons emitted electrons, an attractive force was created that helped secure the atom's structure. Further investigation showed several potential problems, including the impossibility of an electron of spin 1/2 and a proton of spin 1/2 to equal a neutron spin of 1/2. Heisenberg's work inspired Enrico Fermi's ideas of beta decay with the emission and absorption of neutrinos and electrons. While this solved the spin problem, the force produced by beta decay wasn't sufficient for atomic binding. Yukawa combined both theories to fix the issue by recognizing and articulating the key role of an "exchange particle" — the meson. Using his equation, Yukawa deduced the mass of this missing particle. And 12 years later, he was proven right: Pions were the linchpin in atomic links. Elementary Evolution As new particles and potential interactions emerge, real-life applications — from pinpoint navigation accuracy to the creation of custom states of quantum light — are evolving. But these cutting-edge efforts owe their existence to the tireless work of scientists like Cecil Powell and Hideki Yukawa who helped solve some of the most pressing problems in particle physics by accurately predicting — and empirically verifying — the presence and potential of pions.

Particle Physics Pion-eers: Mastering the Meson

"Primitive and dangerous" aren't highly desirable features in a neighbor. Add in "more common than previously thought," and you've found a great reason to move. The trouble is we're already moving — at 67,000 miles per hour, and unfortunately, the Earth's average orbital speed isn't always enough to get us away from these particular neighbors: large, ancient asteroids living in what, until recently, was believed to be a relatively quiet corner of our solar system. It stands to reason that an asteroid twice as wide as Manhattan, like the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs, shouldn't be that hard to find. Reason didn't stick the landing here. Where Did the Asteroid That Ended the Mesozoic Era Come From? More than a decade ago, NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) mission went hunting for the birthplace of the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs and ended the Mesozoic Era. WISE discovered incredible things, but after more than a year of searching the solar system for the origin of that particular space rock, WISE was empty-handed. In their 2011 study, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) astronomers looked at reflected light from around 120,000 asteroids in the asteroid belt. In the end, they still couldn't pinpoint the origin of the 6.2-mile-diameter asteroid that fell to Earth in what is now the Gulf of Mexico, leaving an immense crater and a layer of meteor-like material in the middle of the fossil record: the Mesozoic Era. This telltale material suggests that the object that struck our planet probably wasn't from a nearby part of the asteroid belt — a belt that, for the record, isn't cinched very tightly around the sun. The asteroid belt extends from just beyond Earth and exists between Jupiter and Mars. Millions of asteroids scattered throughout the belt are made up of combinations of rock, ice, metal and minerals left over from the formation of the solar system. Around 60% of the closest asteroids to us are made primarily from silica. Known as S-type asteroids, they are the gray hue of sand mixed with dirt. Darker C-types made from carbon tend to live farther out in the belt — three times farther away than the S-types. Like the recently visited asteroid Bennu, these carbonaceous chondrite-like asteroids can be the color of coal, reflecting less than 4% of the light that shines on them. This dark origin helps explain how a 6.2-mile-diameter asteroid can sail around between Earth and Jupiter undetected. Sorting objects out of an infinity of blackness depends on light. Unless that object is blocking out starlight, bending it like a black hole, radiating it like an oven or reflecting it back at our telescopes, seeing an object of that size is not an easy feat, even with the best telescopes we possess. Fortunately, even if we can't see where something is, we can try to model where it should be. That's where the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) group comes in. Dr. Simone Marchi and colleagues re-examined the data gathered by WISE. They ran their own calculations regarding where certain sizes of asteroids are in the belt and how often those asteroids travel inward toward the sun to strike the Earth. They came to a number of conclusions; two of which, if correct, would significantly impact our views of how that Mesozoic Era came to an end. What We Can Conclude From the Evidence Gathered The first conclusion is that asteroids from the outer and middle belt impact Earth far more often than previously believed. Previous models indicated that less than 10% of Earth impactors came from the outer or middle belt. Marchi, Bottke and Nesvorné½ concluded that asteroids from that region actually supply closer to 35% to 40% of our large impactors. They also calculated that these darker asteroids constitute up to 50% of Near Earth Asteroids (NEAs) and that about 70% of dark NEAs come from this farther-out region. The second Earth-shattering conclusion was about how often a C-type asteroid (the same size of asteroid that killed the dinosaurs) can be expected to visit our planet. Their conclusion was about once every 250 million years, on average. Given that the Chicxulub event that marked the end of the Mesozoic Era occurred close to 65 million years ago, if these calculations are correct, we should have some time before another 6-mile-wide asteroid from the outer belt pays us a visit. It's important to remember that kilograms of space dust, chunks of ancient ice and rocks the size of fists — not to mention our own satellites — hit our exosphere head-on every single day. Very few of these objects pose a threat. Most are the size of a sand grain. Asteroids larger than 100 meters can cause earthquakes on land and tidal waves in the ocean, but according to our observations, asteroids of that size only come by every 1,000 years or so. What Does This Mean for the Future of the Planet? Millions of years pass between era-ending events, where an asteroid 1,000 meters or larger manages to make direct contact with the surface of the Earth. To better understand where these killer asteroids are now, where they come from in space and where they'll be going in time, we need detailed observation of dark asteroids in all parts of the belt. Planetary defense organizations are working to solve that problem now, as well as the issue of how to deal with an asteroid of any type and significant size that comes our way. The SwRI team also concluded that since asteroids have been escaping from the belt for more than a billion years, the number of asteroids remaining to maraud us has declined significantly and will continue to do so over time. According to the team's model, these days, only one asteroid with a diameter greater than 3 miles escapes from the main asteroid belt every 93,000 years or so. Though these asteroids are, beyond a shadow of a doubt, potentially dangerous — and more common visitors to Earth than we thought — the SwRI group's simulations demonstrate, perhaps for the first time, how the orbits of large asteroids from this part of space can bring them, or not bring them, near Earth. The models suggest that when they do go wandering, the vast majority of these city-size, oddly shaped boulders from the dark outer belt avoid our planet altogether. At this moment in real space, this phenomenon is playing out before our very eyes. Asteroid Bennu, sampled by NASA's OSIRIS-REx spacecraft in 2020, is drifting slowly in our general direction. It will continue to do so for more than 100 years. Even so, it only has a 1-in-2,700 chance of falling to Earth sometime between 2175 and 2199, which means we have some time to decide how to reason with it. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery in science, technology and engineering.

Lost and Found: Searching for the Source of the Asteroid That Killed the Dinosaurs

Fans of the series Game of Thrones will be more than familiar with the dire wolf. As a CGI beast, they ran alongside the Stark children through the early episodes, enchanting viewers with ferocity and lupine charm. It's therefore no surprise that a South Oregon dog breeder is attempting to create a real dire wolf for modern times. The Washington Post describes how mixing dog breeds is creating the fantasy lookalike for the pet market, with German shepherds and Alaskan malamutes giving this new breed the wolf hybrid look. But what is a dire wolf? You may be surprised to learn that, far from legendary, a real dire wolf did exist. What Is a Dire Wolf? Fantasy TV dire wolves appear as massive dog-like creatures, swift and ferocious in battle and covered in shaggy gray-white fur. But do these characteristics translate to their real-life counterparts? Yes and no. Dire wolves did exist, and they looked very much like large dogs. But instead of gray and shaggy, researchers now think that the ancient dire wolf looked more like a larger reddish coyote. Fossil evidence from the Pleistocene era suggests that Canis dirus was similar in shape to a modern gray wolf but bigger. National Geographic describes them as being around 150 pounds (ca. 68 kg) and six feet long from nose to tail tip. The dire wolf's skull shape was similar to that of wolves and other canine species of today, suggesting that these animals were capable of hunting down and dispatching small herbivores like deer and horses. They may also have been able to take down bison and small mammoths. Where Did the Real Dire Wolf Roam? The real dire wolf was a predator in North America between 250 and 13 thousand years ago, according to Science.org. The species may have crossed over the land bridge into Asia before sea levels rose to form the Bering Strait. The New York Times reports that fossil evidence in Northeast China points to dire wolves surviving in that area. According to the fossils from North America, dire wolves were the largest canids on the continent. The National Park Service has noted that finds from the famous La Brea tar pits in Los Angeles indicate that the animals lived in large social groups or packs and engaged in competition over prey. Genomics Provide Answers So, evidence has suggested that dire wolves were a lot like today's gray wolves, and this is how they've been portrayed in dioramas, illustrations and of course on television. But now there is evidence to suggest that maybe the real dire wolf was a redhead. The genomic evidence from the La Brea tar pits is scarce, as the hot bubbly conditions rapidly degrade DNA. However, one fossil did yield a clump of collagen, which scientists were able to analyze and compare with modern dog lineages. They found that the dire wolf protein strands were remarkably different from what was expected. To make greater sense of this, the team needed more genomic material with which to work. Since DNA from existing tar pit fossils was in short supply, the researchers put out a wider search for materials, calling on museums and collections for bits of ancient wolf bone to see if any held traces of DNA. According to Scientific American, the hunt was successful: The lead researcher tracked down and recently reported the sequencing results of five dire wolf fossils that are between 50,000 and 13,000 years old. The genomic analysis showed that dire wolves are less related to gray wolves than previously thought; their lineage split away around 5.7 million years ago, and they are more closely related to African jackals. Instead of Canis dirus, dire wolves are probably more correctly termed Aenocynon dirus and are depicted as short-furred, reddish animals. The genomic sequencing also held another surprising result: Dire wolf DNA showed that they did not interbreed with other dog species, as is common for other canids. This, along with reliance on a very specific and inflexible diet, may be the reason for their extinction. Competition, climate change causing shortage of prey, or maybe diseases from incoming wolves or other canids could also be responsible for North America's lack of dire wolves today. That doesn't stop people hoping though. As Inverse reports, a potential dire wolf found in Montana in May 2018 turned out to be a regular gray wolf with bigger ears than normal. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman's career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Would the Real Dire Wolf Please Step Forward?

Human preservation techniques such as mummification leave evidence of what life was like hundreds or even thousands of years ago. Forensic scientists can use this evidence to recreate faces and even voices from the past. By physically reconstructing ancient figures, experts help the public connect with history on a deeper level.  "Forensic facial reconstruction is an extremely effective means of communicating skeletal data and human stories in history to the public," explains Karin Bruwelheide, a skeletal biologist at the Smithsonian Institution's Museum of Natural History.  Giving a Voice to the Past  In January 2020, a team of scientists from the United Kingdom announced that they resurrected a mummy's voice. While they were only able to produce a single sound, it's the first time anyone has been able to hear the sound of someone's voice from three millennia ago in Ancient Egypt. To do this, the researchers used the same medical device that can scan your body for tumors to scan the body of an ancient Egyptian priest named Nesyamun. They published their findings in the journal Scientific Reports.  When he was alive more than 3,000 years ago, Nesyamun's voice was an important part of his duties as a priest, which involved speaking and singing various rituals. The inscriptions on his coffin, in hieroglyphs, describe his wish to be able to speak after his death. In some ways, the researchers fulfilled this wish by recreating his voice.  Modern 3D scanning techniques can replicate artifacts or other evidence without even touching it. Timothy D. Christ, an international forensic engineering and reconstruction expert describes forensic reconstruction as reverse-engineering the past. Whether it involves recreating a car accident for an insurance claim, building a model of a crime scene for an investigation, or reconstructing a historical figure's face, the trick is to study the evidence without disturbing it.  Forensic engineers can survey a scene with a scanner that measures the angles that the laser's light particles bounce back.  "The accuracy of all the measurements is really precise because it figures all that out with an algorithm," Christ says. "The level of detail and precision that you have is pretty remarkable. Twenty years ago that didn't exist. We were still doing things with a tape measure."  Now, forensic engineers use a combination of laser scanning tools, animation software and 3D printers to recreate the past. Similar techniques can be used for scanning historical figures.  Christ says, "With the technology available there is a huge opportunity to really take history to a whole new level."  How They Do It  Forensic reconstruction involves a collaboration between scientists, 3D technicians, model makers, artists, historians and community groups.  In the case of the mummy's voice, the body had been displayed at Leeds City Museum in England for nearly two centuries. It was first unwrapped in 1824 when a team of three surgeons and a chemist carefully investigated it. Over time, scientists have continued to study the body using more advanced techniques, like an X-ray examination in 1931 and early CT scanning techniques in the 1990s. Now they were able to use a modern CT scanning machine, plus medical imaging software and a 3D printer to recreate Nesyamun's vocal tract.  The researchers removed the body from its coffin and placed it on a multi-detector CT scanner.  While conventional X-rays can reveal a two-dimensional image that's useful for looking at bones, CT (short for computed tomography) scans contain more detailed information. According to the National Institutes of Health, when a patient gets a CT scan, a narrow beam of X-rays rotates around the body, producing signals that are processed by a computer to generate cross-sectional images of the body. The computer can then stack these image "slices" together to create a 3D image that shows the patient's skeleton, organs and tissues. While CT scans are typically used to look for some kind of abnormality in a live patient, the same technique was used on the mummy to create a 3D model of its vocal tract without damaging it.  After the scans were complete, medical imaging software developed a digital model for the mummy's vocal tract. Bruwelheide, who works on similar forensic reconstruction projects for the Smithsonian Institute, explains that the files are then translated into digital 3D images, using an algorithm that selects portions of the CT image based on the image's grayscale.  Bruwelheide says, "Each slice must be checked for selection accuracy, cleaned, and smoothed. The final result is a 'layer cake' of colored images that can then be rendered out as a dimensionally accurate 3D object."  The CT images confirmed that the structure of Nesyamun's larynx and throat remained preserved for three millennia, due to the elaborate mummification process. The researchers attached the replica of the mummy's vocal organ to an artificial larynx to synthesis speech. The artificial mummy voice uttered a sound similar to the vowel sounds in the words "bed" and "bad," with researchers noting that Nesyamun's vocal tract is smaller than the anatomy of contemporary adult men.  If this whole thing seems a bit far-fetched, consider the fact that the same researchers have previously proven their method. They've made 3D-printed models of living men's vocal tracts and compared the synthesized sound to their real voices.  "We've done extensive work on 3D vocal tracts," researcher David Howard told IEEE Spectrum. "I can recreate my vocal tract and then you can hear it next to me and tell me if it's similar or not, and the answer is: It is. We are using that fact to transpose this back 3,000 years and say we have something like Nesyamun would have sounded."  Recreating Yesterday's Faces   Human preservation techniques such as cryogenics, embalming, and mummification are often steeped in spiritual beliefs. Many of the rituals involved in preparing bodies for the afterlife do in fact protect the person's legacy for centuries or even millennia. Nesyamun isn't the only historical figure whose body has been brought into the modern world. Facial reconstruction is a popular way for museums to help the public connect with the past.  "Facial reconstructions can not only show us what individuals from the past may have looked like, but they can communicate the distant and sometimes harsh history of the past to a broader audience that otherwise might not have listened," Bruwelheide says.  At the Smithsonian's Natural History Museum, for example, forensic facial reconstruction techniques were used to re-create likenesses of early colonists from their skeletal remains, and busts and full-body reconstructions of ancient hominids from fossil remains were included in the permanent exhibition of the Hall of Human Origins. StudioEIS, the New York firm of artists that creates many figures for Smithsonian also recently built the likenesses of Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman for the Annapolis State House Trust, to name just a few.  How They Do It  Historians can use a combination of bone analysis, genetics research, digital modeling, 3D printing, historic research and a bit of artistic license to recreate famous faces. Take England's King Richard III, for example. He was killed in the Battle of Bosworth in 1485 and his skeleton was found buried beneath a parking lot in 2012, according to CNN. While all skulls may look alike to the general public, professionals can analyze the skull to find clues about the person's appearance.  Even small differences in skull shape can alter the relationship between the underlying architecture of the skull and the hard (cartilage) and soft (muscle, fat, skin) tissues of the face, according to Bruwelheide. Bones contain details about age, sex and ancestry. Plus, any anomalies, such as a broken and healed nose, give additional detail. Therefore, a skull provides plenty of information for a scientist to figure out the main details of an individual's appearance.  Beyond skeletal examinations, genetic tests can also track ancestral origins and confirm the sex of remains, even if the person's remains weren't protected with any human preservation techniques. DNA tests revealed sharper details about the king's appearance, such as the fact that he likely had blonde hair and blue eyes. Museum Crush notes that a facial reconstruction expert spent four hours reworking King Richard III's bust to make it more accurate.  After the baseline has been established through bone scans (and sometimes genetic testing), the next phase of facial reconstruction involves creating the bust. The goal is to align the factual details about the person's anatomy with historical knowledge about the time and place where they lived.  The team considers "craniofacial morphology," plus subjective features such as hair, skin color, facial expression and possible head coverings, says Bruwelheide. They even deliberate the gaze and position of the head because these details can change the viewers' perception of the figure.  Next, a forensic sculptor builds the face, based on guidance from anthropologists who suggest details about age, ancestry, body build and any distinctive features of the skull. With this information, the sculptor places tissue depth markers at designated landmarks on the 3D-printed skull. Then they use strips of clay to fill in the areas between these markers to gradually build the head, face and neck.  The team consults with each other throughout the whole process, especially when it's time for the finishing details like hair style, eye color and the skin's color and texture.  Bruwelheide notes that there's a fine line between making the figure just realistic enough. She explains, "A figure devoid of color can appear ghostly. In contrast, the addition of realistic colors can make a form too lifelike, allowing little room for personal interpretation on the part of the viewer. The tonal painting lends realism without being fully resolved. Color is suggested with enough realism that the figure is humanized."  

Human Preservation Brings History to Life

Galileo Galilei's inventions and theories changed the way we view the universe. Today, he is regarded as the father of modern science, but during his lifetime he was condemned as a heretic for contradicting the Roman Catholic Church's belief that the Earth was the center of a perfect universe. Galileo, as he is known, was a philosopher, astronomer and mathematician. He was born in Pisa, Italy, in 1564, according to Britannica. Galileo went to college to study medicine, but he switched his focus to mathematics and ended up quitting school before completing his degree. However, he went on to teach math, and through lectures and writing he built a scholarly reputation. His Greatest Achievements Still Influence Modern Science History.com reported that Galileo made his first important discovery in 1583, when he described the rules that govern the motion of pendulums, which would become the foundation for pendulum clocks. He also invented and improved several other scientific tools that are now considered staples: balances, microscopes, compasses and — most famously — telescopes. During his time, people believed Aristotle's theory that heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones. Galileo questioned this concept and conducted motion experiments that disproved them. Space.com explains that by dropping balls of different weights, he revealed that objects accelerate at the same rate, regardless of mass. These motion experiments paved the way for Sir Isaac Newton to develop the laws of motion, and they pushed the scientific method into its modern form, in which scientists use experiments to prove that their hypotheses are true. The powerful James Webb Space Telescope and other modern telescopes are the descendants of Galileo Galilei's inventions. Before his time, basic telescopes existed, but they were only used as spyglasses. According to History.com, in 1609, he improved the design of a Dutch telescope and turned it toward the night sky, a key turning point in the history of astronomy. He went on to publish his findings, which included the discovery of Jupiter's moons and new stars in the Milky Way, plus observations of sunspots and the moon's cratered surface. A Controversial Figure Galileo drew conclusions that contradicted the Aristotelian view of the universe, which was widely accepted by both scientists and theologians in his era. Instead of following the widespread belief that Earth was at the center of a perfect heavenly world, Galileo exposed an unruly truth: The universe is chaotic, and it doesn't revolve around us. His work supported the Copernican heliocentric system, the theory that the earth and planets revolve around the sun, according to Biography. Galileo was a devout Catholic who tried to prove that Copernican theory did not contradict the Bible, but the church would not allow a scientist to say he interpreted scripture better than they did. He was summoned before the Roman Inquisition and ultimately convicted of heresy. His books were banned, and he spent the last years of his life under house arrest until he died in 1642.  Galileo Galilei's inventions outlived him and changed the course of history of astronomy and physics. The church eventually accepted Copernican theory and removed Galileo's works from the list of banned books. In 1992, Pope John Paul II declared that Galileo was right after all. The universe remains mysterious, but today's astronomers are armed with both the basic tools and concepts from Galileo's legacy and the cutting-edge technology of today.

Galileo Galilei's Inventions Exposed the Universal Truth

A greenish glow from a remote galaxy is providing astronomers with a glimpse into star formation in the early days of the universe, hinting at new cosmic mysteries waiting to be explained. As Sky & Telescope reported, a team of astronomers used the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array, or ALMA, located in Chile, to detect oxygen gas in a galaxy nearly 13.3 billion light years away. Since looking across such cosmic distances is also looking back in time, the galaxy is being seen as it was about 550 million years after the Big Bang. A Light in the Dark The green glow indicates the presence of oxygen — making the ALMA observations the earliest point in time at which astronomers have detected individual elements — but it is more than that. While we often associate detecting oxygen with the search for life, oxygen is also important for another reason: It was created in stars, said Sky and Telescope. The early universe, according to Sky & Telescope, was "pristine;" it contained only hydrogen and helium, elements created in the Big Bang. Oxygen only appeared later, cooked up by nuclear reactions inside early stars. Some of these stars later blew up in supernova explosions that spread the oxygen out across space. When we detected oxygen in the early universe, the time period that NASA described as the dark ages of the universe had already ended. The first stars had formed, produced oxygen and released it into space by exploding. For this oxygen to be already present in sufficient quantities for ALMA to detect at a time 550 million years after the Big Bang, Sky & Telescope noted that the earliest star formation must have taken place even earlier, when the universe was only about 250 million years old.   Enable targeting cookies to view this content. Simulations, Complications and Cosmic Mysteries Every new discovery pulls on the threads of our understanding, opening up new mysteries. The team that detected oxygen with ALMA also examined the same galaxy, designated MACS1149-JD1, with the Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. And what they found was a discrepancy, said Sky and Telescope.  The stars that produce oxygen and later explode are massive and bright. Galaxies have a much larger number of fainter stars. The observations confirm this. But it turns out that, based on computer simulations, MACS1149-JD1 ought to have more bright stars than it does, according to Sky & Telescope. Contrary to our simulations, noted Sky & Telescope, star formation seems to have started out strong, then slowed down to a comparative trickle before picking up again.  One possibility, added Sky & Telescope, is that a supermassive black hole was disrupting star formation in the galaxy. This is not the only time, as we've reported, that black holes have figured in our understanding of the early universe. Likewise, we've noted that an ancient star formation is offering insight into one of the greatest of cosmic mysteries, dark matter. The early universe was filled with surprises. The more we discover, the more we find that calls for further exploration — an ongoing series of adventures that create their own sequels.

Cosmic Mysteries May Provide Insight Into Earliest Star Formations

Fossils hold many clues to human evolution. But the origins of human speech — there are about 6,000 spoken languages today — are less well-known. Muscles and organs leave behind no fossilized remains and so the evolution of language is harder to trace.        To piece together the puzzle of human speech, scientists have looked for evidence in several places, including ancient writings, the comparable vocal tracts in our primate relatives and in experiments based on anatomical and acoustical models.        About 50 years ago, scientists arranging these puzzle pieces began to hypothesize that the clues to human speech lay in the shape and position of the human voice box, or larynx. It's lower in the throat in modern humans than it is in apes and monkeys. The scientists named their theory the laryngeal descent theory of vowel production, according to The Atlantic. If correct, the theory means that modern Homo sapiens developed the vocal tract for language somewhere between 200,000 and 300,000 years ago.        But the latest research on the evolution of language, published in 2019 in the journal Science Advances, pushes back on this long-held theory. It suggests that the evolution of the spoken word can be traced back 27 million years, to when humans and Old World monkeys, such as baboons and macaques, shared a common ancestor. In an editorial piece for The Conversation, scientific team leaders Thomas R. Sawallis, a visiting scholar at the University of Alabama, and Louis-Jean Boé«, a senior researcher at the University of Grenoble in France, write that their finding, "frees researchers in speech, linguistics, primatology and human evolution from the laryngeal descent theory," which means they can look for clues outside the confines of what has become linguistic dogma.        Incumbent Theory        Writing dates to around 3200 B.C., according to Discover, and it shows signs of words, sentences and grammar. Humans had, by then, a mature grasp of language. For clues to the spoken word, though, scientists have looked to primates, such as apes and monkeys, who are genetically related to humans. They've also used anatomical and acoustical modeling technology to calculate the kinds of sounds differently shaped vocal tracts can and cannot make, reports The Conversation.        From research in these areas came the widely accepted laryngeal descent theory of vowel production, attributed to Philip Lieberman, who is now a professor at Brown University. Not only does the theory focus on the shape and low position of the larynx in modern humans, it also takes into consideration a human's throat cavity, which is longer than that in Old World monkeys, and our comparably shorter tongue, which curves down into the back of the throat. The theory says that these features give modern humans the ability to produce contrasting vowel and consonant sounds as well as syllables and syntax. It also purports to explain why other animals, who lack this anatomy, can't make these sounds.        Around the same time that the low position of the larynx shows up in modern humans — between 200,000 and 300,000 years ago — they started making jewelry and cave paintings. They formed settlements and began farming. These archeological findings may be indirect evidence of the existence of the spoken word, scientists have argued. Language may have driven art, culture and cooperation.        The Challenger        Sawallis and Boé«, whose multidisciplinary team has spent decades studying articulatory and acoustic modeling, child language research, paleontology, primatology and more offer several counterpoints in The Conversation. For starters, if other primates don't have the anatomy to produce contrasting vowel sounds, they write, what explains the audio recordings from renowned primatologist, Jane Goodall, that show chimpanzees producing contrasting vowel sounds?        The scientists also point to 1,300 recorded baboon calls that they analyzed acoustically. Results showed that "the vowel quality of certain calls was equivalent to known human vowels." The team says their research shows that by producing contrasting vowel sounds, apes and monkeys are indeed "talking" and were likely doing it 27 million years ago — not 200,000 years ago.        Some scientists, including Greg Hickok, a cognitive science professor at the University of California, Irvine who was not involved in the study, think the timeline is probably somewhere in the middle. He told The Atlantic that the ability to speak probably arose nearer to the time our ancestors split from genus Pan, which includes chimpanzees and bonobos — our closest living relatives. That occurred about 5 to 7 million years ago.        Future of Language        While linguists battle it out about the evolution of language, others are looking to the future. In April 2020, Andrew McKenzie, an associate professor of linguistics at the University of Kansas, and Jeffrey Punske, an assistant professor of linguistics at Southern Illinois University, published a study in the journal Acta Futura suggesting that interstellar travel will evolve human language beyond recognition. The journal captures technologies and ideas from the European Space Agency's Advanced Concepts Team, which conducts science that's strategically important to the agency's long term planning — and interstellar space travel is certainly on the list.        At the core of their study is the fact that language naturally evolves over time. English speakers today wouldn't understand someone who spoke Old English, which was used between the 5th and 11th centuries. And in more recent history, communities of people that have lived in close geographical proximity to one another but may have been separated by a mountain, for instance, spoke a totally different language. Switzerland is an excellent example. Depending on where a person grows up in this tiny country, they may speak German, French, Italian or Romansh as their native tongue.        Imagine then, an interstellar flight that takes not just years, but generations to reach its destination. "If you're on this vessel for 10 generations, new concepts will emerge, new social issues will come up, and people will create ways of talking about them and these will become the vocabulary particular to the ship," McKenzie said in a press statement. Even as language evolves on the ship, so too will it evolve on planet Earth, causing a wider division.        The scientists recommend that such crews include a linguist and an informed linguistic policy that helps the crew and its passengers adapt without having to refer back to Earth-based regulations.        Ironically, such a policy and a record of how the language changed onboard the ship could one day become a kind of fossil of human evolution.            

A Debate Over the Evolution of Language Is Stuck in the Throat

Exactly 1001 years ago, a Viking took an axe to a tree. The tree — and, for that moment, the Viking — were at a place now called L'Anse aux Meadows in modern-day Newfoundland. The Viking called it Vinland; at least, that is how later Vikings recorded it in their saga accounts of the adventures of Leif Erikson and the Vikings in North America. We know this because 1000 years later, in the fall of 2021, a team of scientists tested wood chips from the Viking's efforts and was able to date them with startling precision to the year 1021. As the team reported in the science journal Nature, they were able to derive this precision result because of a cosmic storm that swept past Earth some decades earlier. An Interdisciplinary Saga Vikings and cosmic radiation storms make for a great pairing and a great example of interdisciplinary science at its most amazing, weaving threads together from historical research, archeology, nuclear physics and space science. The story begins with a set of stories: the Icelandic Sagas, tales of Viking adventures recorded and preserved in medieval Iceland long after the Viking era ended. The saga accounts of Leif Erikson's voyages to lands west of Greenland were regarded with some doubt until 1960, when, as Science reports, a Viking-era Norse archeological site was found at L'Anse aux Meadows. The archeological findings confirmed that the Vikings did not simply make up their stories, but had actually reached parts of the Americas. But when it happened remained uncertain. Viking artifacts from the site could be dated on stylistic grounds, but only approximately. An alternative method of dating ancient organic material — such as wood — relies on measuring radioactive carbon-14 from a sample and comparing it to non-radioactive carbon in the same sample. Because carbon-14 decays at a known rate, the proportions can be used to estimate when the organic material died and thus stopped absorbing carbon. Most radiocarbon dating is only approximate. This is especially true of samples measured in the 1960s after the discoveries at L'Anse aux Meadows, when the technique was less developed. But since that time, scientists have made a couple of other important discoveries. A Cosmic Storm Leaves Its Mark in Trees Careful examination of the radiocarbon dating record shows that there have been occasional spikes in the proportion of radioactive carbon-14, believed to be due to bursts of cosmic rays striking the Earth. These cosmic storms probably erupted from the sun, but whatever their source, the cosmic ray bursts affected the proportion of radioactive carbon absorbed by trees around the world at that time. One of these storms, reports ScienceAlert, can be dated to the years 992—993. Trees growing at that time show a carbon-14 spike in their annual growth ring for that year. By counting the number of growth rings between the carbon-14 spike and the bark, researchers can determine what year the tree died in. This is how the wood chips from L'Anse aux Meadows were found to have come from trees that were chopped down in the year 1021. As chief researcher Michael Dee notes in Science magazine, the key evidence was "not some beautiful objects or Viking artwork or anything like that," but simply "offcuts or refuse of Viking activity." Dee also remarks on the foresight of archeologist and coauthor Birgitta Wallace, who thought to preserve wood chips from the site in a freezer. The wood chips also show that the tree was felled with a metal ax. This detail links the chips specifically to the Vikings, since the Indigenous people of the region did not use metal axes at that time. The Saga Continues Radiocarbon expert Rachel Wood, who was not part of the research team, remarks that "the precision is astounding" — pinning down Norse activity at L'Anse aux Meadows not just to the Viking era, but to a specific year. And the modern saga of rediscovering the Vikings in North America continues. At almost the same time that Nature reported the exact dating of L'Anse aux Meadows, Sci-News reported that a 14th-century monk in Milan, Italy set down an account of a land in the far North Atlantic he called Marckalada — his rendering, in medieval Latin, of Markland. This was another western island reported by the sagas, now believed to probably be Labrador. Fourteenth-century Milan was in close contact with the great commercial center and seaport of Genoa, where Christopher Columbus would be born 100 years later. Were rumors of western Atlantic islands floating around Genoa at that time? Just as we have closed in on the date of the settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows, we may be closing in on an answer to that question, too.

Vikings in North America Pinpointed by Cosmic Storm

If a prehistoric rhino roamed the world today, it would be heavier than an elephant and taller than a giraffe. A new study from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and Harvard reveals details about a newly discovered species of giant rhinos (Paraceratherium linxiaense) that lived in the Tibetan plateau region during the Oligocene Epoch, approximately 26.5 million years ago. Getting to Know the Giant Rhino The giant rhino is considered the largest land mammal that ever lived, according to a press release from CAS. Although scientists have known about these rhinos for a while, the new fossils provide clues about how ancient rhinos dispersed across Asia. The paleontologists examined a completed, preserved, 3.8-foot-long skull of a P. linxiaense rhino, complete with a jaw bone and part of the spine. The giant fossils were extracted in 2015 from a site in the Linxia Basin in Gansu Province, China, located at the northeastern border of the Tibetan Plateau. The prehistoric rhino's remains were found in a high-altitude plateau where yaks and antelopes roam in today's cold and dry Tibetan climate. But back in the giant rhino's day, the region was likely in an open woodland environment, as the researchers explain in Communications Biology. They report: "Late Oligocene tropical conditions allowed the giant rhino to return northward to Central Asia, implying that the Tibetan region was still not established as a high-elevation plateau. The largest land mammal might have been able to migrate freely, passing along the eastern coast of the Tethys in the western part of Tibet, and even through some lowlands within what is now the plateau." Putting Giant Fossils Into Context The prehistoric rhino would have been tall enough to eat flowers on the third or fourth floor of a building, according to National Geographic explorer Pierre-Olivier Antoine, a rhino paleontologist at the University of Montpellier who reviewed the study. Unfortunately, National Geographic reports that some ancient rhino fossils have been lost due to human conflicts. In 2006, the Pakistani army bombed Dera Bugti, a town that held a collection of 300 fossils. The P. linxiaense's fossils are safely preserved in the Hezheng Paleozoological Museum in China. In the future, the researchers are hoping to reconstruct the giant rhino's muscles and develop a better sense of its body mass. Discoveries like that of the giant rhino fossil not only reveal clues about our past, but they can also put today's animals in context. Present-day rhinos are much smaller, maxing out at around 10 feet tall and around 2,000 pounds, though they are still giants compared with the rest of the animal kingdom. Sadly, the World Wildlife Foundation (WWF) reports that there are only around 27,000 left in the world. This is a fraction of the 500,000 rhinos that existed at the beginning of the twentieth century. Populations have dwindled due to a combination of poaching and habitat loss. The good news is conservation efforts have led to some restoration of rhino populations. For example, WWF says that in Africa, black rhino numbers have doubled — from a historic low just 20 years ago to around 5,600 today. Now, there are 27,000 left in the world. This is a fraction of the 500,000 rhinos that existed at the beginning of the twentieth century. As WWF explains, rhinos are important to save because they are one of the oldest groups of mammals, virtually living fossils. Populations have dwindled due to a combination of poaching and habitat loss. The latest efforts to save the modern rhino include tackling wildlife crime and protecting key populations, community-based conservation, and even high-tech solutions, such as satellite trackers. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Prehistoric Rhino Fossils Reveal an Epic Past

Benjamin Franklin is probably best known for two things in popular culture: his portrait on the $100 dollar bill, and flying a kite in a lightning storm to capture electricity.   In fact, we do not know for sure whether he himself ever conducted the experiment with the kite. (According to the Franklin Institute, he probably did.) What we do know for certain is that Ben Franklin's inventions include the first practical electrical device, and that he was the first scientist to explain electricity in terms we still use today, including current, positive and negative, and even battery.   Spark of an Idea   In the 1750s, decades before his role in the American Revolution earned him a place on the $100 bill, Benjamin Franklin was already a leading inventor and scientist. His ideas and research were famous across Europe as well as what were then still the British colonies in America.   One of the many subjects that drew his interest was electricity. Some awareness of electrical phenomena, says Practical Physics, goes back to ancient times. Rubbing cloth on amber, a semiprecious material used for jewelry, will produce a static charge. In fact, the Greek word for amber, elektron, gave its name to electricity and all related terms.   According to the Library of Congress, electrical phenomena were drawing the attention of scientists by the 1750s, but otherwise were only useful for parlor tricks such as producing sparks. Nor did scientists yet have a theory of electricity that could explain the phenomena they observed.   Ben Franklin's inventions related to electricity started out with one dramatic insight: that a lightning bolt was an enormous electrical spark.   Key to a New Technology   To test this theory, says the Franklin Institute, he proposed a test in which a metal object, elevated above its surroundings, would attract the electric charge that Franklin correctly believed was present in the atmosphere during a lightning storm. The metal target would be connected to a Leyden jar, an early device for storing an electric charge.    Our fullest account of Franklin's efforts, per the Franklin Institute, comes not from Ben Franklin himself, but from British contemporary and scientist Joseph Priestley, who discovered oxygen. According to Priestley, Franklin originally planned to try the experiment in a church spire. Then he came up with the kite as a more convenient way to carry the metal target up into a stormy sky.   In October 1752, a Philadelphia newspaper published Franklin's own account of the experimental procedure, using a key as the target and a kite to carry it aloft. The experiment, he wrote, conclusively demonstrated "the Sameness of the Electric Matter with that of Lightning."   Franklin never specifically says that he performed the experiment himself, so we can't be absolutely sure, but he explained electricity and its connection to lightning.    The First Electrical Safety Device   Ben Franklin was a great believer in practicality, as noted by the Library of Congress. So for him it was not enough to explain electricity — he also wanted to find practical uses for it. And that was exactly what he did. He did not yet have a way to make electricity do useful work, but he could prevent electricity (in the form of lightning strikes) from doing something dangerous: starting fires.   Franklin realized that his original proposed version of an electricity-capturing device, connected to the ground rather than a Leyden jar, could be set on top of a building to protect it from lightning strikes. Lightning would be drawn to the metal target, a pole, instead of the building, and the wire would conduct the current safely to ground.   Franklin's lightning rod, as the new practical version was called, was the first electrical device to have a function other than entertainment or experimentation. It also allows us to include on the list of Ben Franklin's inventions the first electrical safety apparatus. 

Ben Franklin's Inventions and the Dawn of the Electric Age

Key Takeaways  Orville and Wilbur Wright may have been inspired by a toy helicopter. They started their careers by making a printing press and opening a bicycle shop in Ohio. On Dec. 17, 1903, in Kitty Hawk, the Wright brothers flying machine became the world's first airplane with a flight time of 12s.December 17 marks the 115th anniversary of the Wright Brothers' first flight, a major milestone in the history of aviation. Orville and Wilbur Wright didn't just invent the first airplane; they created a prototype that included many inventions that underlie today's airplanes. The many Wright Brothers inventions are still used today to develop aircraft that go far beyond the capabilities that they could have ever imagined back in Kitty Hawk.What Sparked Their Passion for Innovation?Orville and Wilbur Wright, born 1867 and 1871, grew up in a home that fostered independent thinking long before "innovation" and "disruption" were buzzwords. The home was equipped with an extensive library and according to Encyclopedia Britannica, Orville once said that in their home "there was always much encouragement to children to pursue intellectual interests; to investigate whatever aroused their curiosity."The Wright brothers were raised by parents who were outspoken, free thinking and technically savvy — all attributes that provided an excellent background for their adult lives as inventors. Their mother was a tinkerer ahead of her time. She was the top mathematician in her college class and as an adult she built household appliances for herself and toys for her children, according to The National Park Service (NPS). Their father was a bishop who openly opposed aspects of his church's ideology and eventually split from the church amid controversy.In 1878, according to NPS, their father brought Wilbur and Orville a souvenir from a business trip: a rubber band–powered toy helicopter. They made copies of this toy — possible signs of future Wright brothers inventions. The helicopter was based on a design by French inventor Alphonse Pénaud, whose work in aeronautics they would eventually study as grown men.Their passion for learning and building grew with age, and they started their careers by making a printing press and opening a bicycle shop in Ohio. The Wright brothers were inspired by leaders in early aviation, and according to Britannica, they had followed the work of Otto Lilienthal, a German glider pioneer who died in a glider crash. Fascinated with his work, Orville and Wilbur started investigating flight research, consulting with the Smithsonian Institution for aeronautics resources. In 1900, they wrote to introduce themselves to Octave Chanute, an engineer and a leading authority on aviation who became a personal friend and champion of the Wright brothers during the critical years of experimentation that followed.How They Designed Their First Flying MachineThe brothers started with a kite to test how to control and balance an aircraft, and they tested early designs for a system they called "wing warping" in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. For several years, according to NOAA, the brothers went back and forth between North Carolina and their home in Ohio. They calculated, experimented and developed their designs in a custom wind tunnel at their Ohio bike shop, and then assembled their prototypes and field tested in Kitty Hawk.After extensive research, testing and design changes, on Dec. 17, 1903, in Kitty Hawk, their flying machine became the world's first airplane when it successfully completed a 12-second flight. By the end of that day, they had demonstrated an even longer flight, lasting 59 seconds and covering 852 feet. This was a pivotal moment in the history of aviation.A Lasting Impact on AviationTheir groundbreaking innovations shaped future airplanes and the aviation space in general. Peter Jakab, chief curator at Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, explained in an educational video, "They knew that the airplane was not one invention but many inventions that all needed to work in concert for the machine to be successful."The Wright brothers paid close attention to each component to build a successful airplane. They focused on the basic building blocks for an airplane: wings (a lifting surface to get them into the air), a control system (to control the plane while flying), a propulsion system, aerodynamics and structural design — all the elements that would make up the airplanes of the future.Much like the Wright brothers, Northrop Grumman pays close attention to each component to build successful aircraft and aviation innovation. Learn more about what we do.

Culmination of Wright Brothers' Inventions

Every year, most Americans turn their clocks an hour forward in spring and then an hour back in fall, thanks to daylight saving time. While urban legends might have you believe that daylight saving time was one of Benjamin Franklin's inventions or has something to do with farmers, the truth is somewhat murkier. The History of Daylight Saving Time According to National Geographic, Franklin penned a satirical essay about the financial benefits of waking up early in 1784. He jokingly suggested all sorts of measures for implementing a new system of early wake-up. Some historians still put daylight saving time on Benjamin Franklin's inventions list in spite of his satirical tone: "'It's easy to say Franklin was just joking, and of course he was spoofing the French for being lazy,'" Tufts University professor Michael Downing, author of Spring Forward: The Annual Madness of Daylight Saving Time, told National Geographic. "'But he was a big thrift guy ... He couldn't stop noticing things that could be done more efficiently if they were done his way. So I think in the end it wasn't entirely a joke.'" Daylight saving time has historically sparked interest in countries outside the United States too. In 1905, Englishman William Willett led a campaign to move the clocks forward by 80 minutes so people could enjoy more sunlight. Willett made it his life's mission to implement this change, but he died in 1915 without seeing his dream come true, according to the BBC. On April 30, 1916, Germany embraced daylight saving time as a way to save electricity during World War I. This change moved to the United States around the same time, also in an attempt to preserve resources during wartime, according to TIME. Contrary to popular belief, American farmers didn't lobby for daylight saving time. They opposed the change because they followed the sun, not the clock, for farming procedures. Bringing Daylight Saving Time Into Modern Day In 1965, an 18-story office building in St. Paul, Minnesota, housed nine floors of employees who observed daylight saving time and nine floors of employees who did not, which is a perfect example of the confusion caused by nonpatterned time selections, said TIME. In 1966, Congress implemented the Uniform Time Act of 1966 to make things more standardized. Today, almost every state in the U.S. participates, apart from Hawaii and Arizona. Some U.S. territories — Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, among others — abstain from the system, too, simply because they're closer to the equator and have more sunlight. Some Amish communities also choose to abstain from daylight saving time, given that it's a man-made invention. Are There Actually Any Benefits? Daylight saving time can be controversial, and the data around its benefits is inconclusive. According to ABC News, German researchers have found that daylight saving time could have long-term effects on our health by throwing off our circadian rhythms. Popular Mechanics argues the opposite, stating that extended sunlight during the first eight months of daylight saving are beneficial for your mental health and could increase your desire to exercise and socialize. Whether this system is good or bad, TIME reports that critics and supporters alike acknowledge that daylight saving time is quite ingrained in the American system. It could take years and millions of dollars to dismantle. If nation-wide puzzles around energy savings and time interest you, check out Northrop Grumman's career page.

The History Behind Daylight Saving Time

It's one of the new Seven Wonders of the World. It held 50,000 excited spectators and smaller groups of less-enthusiastic participants, and fueled the resurgence of strong Roman rule. So it's no surprise that the Colosseum earns its place as one of the most impressive construction projects in history. But building the Colosseum was no easy task — what did it really take to birth this behemoth? We're digging deeper to discover the impact and outcome of engineering an empire. Roma Resurgens Politics — not practicality — drove the construction of the Colosseum. After years of civil war, city-destroying fires and disastrous rulers such as Nero, emperor Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty decided it was time to restore Rome's former glory. As noted by the Ancient History Encyclopedia, Vespasian minted coins with the inscription "Roma resurgens" — Rome rises again. He then set his sights on Nero's former Golden House in the heart of Rome for his new engineering effort. For Vespasian, the Colosseum represented stability: In the war-torn year after Nero's suicide, four emperors claimed the throne. Vespasian was the last, ruling for 10 years and laying the foundation for the Flavian dynasty, which according to History.com "attempted to tone down the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare." In approximately 72 A.D. he ordered the construction of the Colosseum; eight years later, his son Titus opened the gates and dedicated the amphitheater to the people of Rome. Numerical Superiority In the history of engineering, Roman projects often stand out for their focus on over-engineering — it's why many of their aqueducts and amphitheaters have endured for millennia. Building the Colosseum was no exception; as noted by BBC History, drains were built 26 feet below the structure to carry away underground stream water. The doughnut-shaped foundation was made of concrete 39-42 feet deep around the outer walls and seating, and 13 feet deep under the arena's inner ellipse. In addition, earth from the massive foundation hole was used to raise ground level around the Colosseum by 23 feet, allowing it to stand astride the skyline rather than shrink below. Colosseum construction conformed to period-specific design sensibilities, which stated that ideal building scale was 5:3. This Roman ratio informed the length and width of the arena. Originally planned at 300 x 180 Roman feet, the arena was eventually adjusted to 280 x 168 — smaller but still in line with ratio requirements, reports BBC History. Eighty entrances let spectators into the building, with 45,000 seats and 5,000 spaces for standing-room only, according to the Ancient History Encyclopedia. Let the Games Begin The Colosseum was largely finished just eight years after being commissioned by emperor Vespasian, but he didn't live to see opening night — his son Titus declared a festival to celebrate with 100 days of games including a mock naval battle. Full completion of the Colosseum happened under Titus' successor Domitian, who built a two-level basement — known as the hypogeum — and added the velarium, a large awning that could be pulled over the arena to shade spectators. Also exciting (and terrifying)? Thirty-six trap doors to let animals loose in the arena or send unwitting gladiators tumbling into the hypogeum. While history has forgotten the name of the architect(s) who designed this incredible structure, there's no doubt about the amount of labor required. Building the Colosseum took over 100,000 slaves working for a decade. As the BBC points out, while the exterior of the Colosseum fairly shone with glimmering travertine, the structure is "really a triumph of brick-vaulting and cement." Barrel vaults and radial walls helped distribute the massive downward force of the three-story building and allowed Roman builders to create soaring spans and arches that wouldn't be possible without massive cement foundations and — as noted above — the penchant for Roman over-engineering. Got a Permit for That? Construction of the Colosseum was almost impossibly fast, owing largely to the use of slave labor. Without the need for workplace protection, city permits or weekend breaks, building this behemoth was relatively straightforward. Modern technology — such as backhoes, bulldozers and dump trucks — would probably put current construction times on par with Roman imperial builders. The bigger challenge? Standing the test of time. As noted by Science Alert, Roman concrete outstrips the strength and longevity of its modern counterpart. Where current concrete erodes in contact with seawater, Roman rock flourishes. While our cement crumbles over time, ancient aggregate grows stronger. Cost is also a concern. Estimates put the budget of creating a Colosseum 2.0 at anywhere from $435 to $675 million — barring resource shortages, earthquakes or labor strikes. Put simply? We'd spend more for a structure that likely wouldn't live up to historic potential. Legends Never Die Even standouts in the history of engineering don't live forever. While Rome did enjoy a resurgence during the Flavian dynasty, multiple earthquakes and changing Roman tastes saw the building fall into disrepair by 600 A.D. By the 20th century, almost two-thirds of the original structure had been destroyed by a combination of neglect and material repurposing. In the 1990s, restoration efforts began and while the Colosseum still falls short of its former glory, it remains one of Rome's most popular attractions. The Colosseum remains a tangible testament to engineering will and wonder — despite its troubled past, there's no denying its place in the grand history of engineering.   

Building the Colosseum: How to Engineer an Empire

Heading to Greece? You'll want to swing by the Parthenon, one of the most alluring and structurally adventurous buildings ever conceived. This highlight of Athens' Acropolis has seen better days, but work is ongoing to restore the ruins and reclaim its former glory. Despite its current state of disrepair, however, the building itself presents a compelling constructive paradox: How did Athenian engineers find the balance between architectural beauty and structural brawn in this piece of ancient architecture? Built to Last The existing temple sits on the site of an older building that was razed by the Persians in approximately 480 BCE. As noted by the Encyclopedia Britannica, construction of second temple to Athena began in 447 BCE under the direction of Pericles. Architects Ictinus and Callicrates (also called Iktinos and Kallikrates, respectively) were called upon to create the building which would eventually house a 39-foot high marble statue of Athena holding a gold-and-ivory aegis and carrying 6-foot tall image of the goddess Nike in her other hand. To construct the temple itself, Athenian builders hauled more than 100,000 tons of marble from a nearby quarry to the construction site where they were hand-trimmed and set in place. Experts believe the massive blocks were moved using a combination of pulleys, ropes and wood cranes — tools already available to the Athenians thanks to their existing naval ships. According to Smithsonian Magazine, the blocks were fastened together without mortar; instead, the Greeks used custom-built iron clamps set into meticulously-carved flutes. Lead was then poured onto the clamps, helping them withstand both regular earthquake events and prevent rusting. Civil engineering professor Kyriazis Pitilakis of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki notes that the columns supporting the Parthenon "are designed so that they have excellent seismic performance properties." Perfect Imperfection There's no denying the beauty of this ancient engineering feat; while the bulk of the temple was constructed using the simple, clean lines of Doric architecture, other elements — such as columns supporting the inner chamber roof — used the more elaborate Ionic style. Along the top outside edge of building is a repeating pattern of three-channeled and carved square blocks, known as triglyphs and metopes. There are 92 metopes in all: Those on the north side show the Trojan War, the south a mythical battle with centaurs, the west a battle with giants and the east a battle against the Amazons. The inner chamber (cella) contained a horizontal decorated frieze that ran the length of the walls and used the bas-relief technique to raise the figures slightly from the background. But for all its beauty, it's also a building of intentional imperfections designed to trick the eye and improve the viewing experience. It contains no perfectly straight lines; instead, the builders attempted to account for the natural tendency of straight edges at scale to appear curved. To accomplish this, the columns lean slightly inwards and bulge subtly in the center, giving the illusion at distance of perfectly straight lines. In addition, the floor of the temple rises slightly in the center to make it appear flat to outside observers, and the four corner columns are slightly fatter than the others, making them seem equally-sized when accounting for the negative space beyond their edge. Athena's Got Talent(s) Ancient architecture isn't cheap — estimates put the cost of building the Parthenon at around 470 silver talents. While there's no exchange rate between USD and Athenian talents, the city supposedly had gross annual income of just 1,000 talents with 6,000 held in reserve. For perspective, the cost to build and fully outfit the most advanced warship of the era — the trireme — was a single talent. Sculptures and metopes also contributed to the overall cost and monumental amount of detail work needed to complete friezes. While the temple itself was dedicated in 438, work continued on the artistic elements until 432 BCE. For example, a stippling pattern applied to the marble which helped dull the finish and reduce the appearance of imperfections "may have taken as much as a quarter of the total construction time expended on the monument," according to Manolis Korres, formerly the Parthenon's head restoration coordinator. In fact, modern efforts to restore friezes and columns have been hampered by technical limitations that would make such a project outrageously expensive in this day and age. While the use of a flute-carving machine has helped speed the process of repair, the precise detail needed to ensure a perfect fit demands hand-chiseling at the final stage. There's also evidence to suggest that current tools can't match ancient chisels and axes for sharpness and durability, meaning Athenian workers were getting more done, faster than tech-driven restoration efforts — and still needed 15 years to finish the job. Boom Goes the Dynamite Beyond the wear and tear that comes with 2,000 years of history, why is this feat of ancient architecture a shell of its former self? As noted by History.com, it started when Christian Byzantines conquered Greece in the sixth century and outlawed pagan worship. They converted the temple into a Christian church and blocked the east side entrance. In 1458, the Ottoman Empire took Athens and converted the church into a mosque — but when war came to their doorstep in 1687, the Empire decided to stockpile ammunition inside. Under heavy cannon fire, stored munitions exploded and much of the temple was destroyed. The Sincerest Form of Flattery As noted above, restoration efforts are underway — they began in 1975 with $23 million in backing from the Greek government. Initial estimations suggested the repairs could be completed in 10 years, but speedy (and sloppy) work done in 1898 proved problematic, causing columns to swell, crack and shift and necessitating immediate replacement. A focus on reusing the original materials wherever possible has also slowed progress; it took architects more than five years to identify the positions of over 500 blocks scattered around the Acropolis thanks to the munitions stockpile explosion. While work remains underway — and behind schedule — a full-scale replica of the Parthenon already exists in Nashville, Tennessee. Functioning as the city's art museum, it features direct plaster casts of original sculptures and monuments to provide a modern, tangible interpretation of Ancient Greek beauty and brawn. From the Parthenon to the pyramids, the Taj Mahal to Rome's Colosseum, ancient architecture remains both culturally relevant and mechanically mesmerizing. 

The Parthenon Paradox: Beauty and Brawn in Ancient Architecture

The Taj Mahal was a labor of love that has inspired affection in its own right.   Constructed nearly 400 years ago in Agra, India, the mausoleum annually attracts an estimated 8 million visitors and is widely considered to be the jewel of Indo-Islamic architecture. From its breathtaking symmetry to the unadorned grave at the spiritual center of the building, the Taj Mahal demands attention from almost every angle.   That's just what its creator wanted: eternal appreciation of the woman it honors. Mumtaz Mahal died while giving birth to her 14th child. Her husband, Shah Jahan, emperor of the Muslim Mughal empire, spared no ambition or cost in memorializing his third and favorite wife. His tribute stands, all these years later, as one of the world's most impressive architectural feats.   The Work of Craftsmen, Laborers and Elephants   A legend that historians disprove but nonetheless circulate, perhaps because its extreme nature mirrors the aesthetic intensity of the site, claims that Shah Jahan severed the hands and gouged the eyes of the artisans and craftsmen who built the mausoleum so that they couldn't repeat their success. If anything, the emperor probably appreciated the efforts of the many architects who designed the diffuse structures that seamlessly mesh to form a sweeping monument. The lingering question throughout the centuries is who actually designed it. As the official website of the Taj Mahal offers, credit for design in those days usually went to the building's patron, rather than the architects. But it is believed the job required a team of architects.   Hopefully, Shah Jahan also appreciated the backbreaking work of the 22,000 laborers who, in a time long before electricity and mechanized construction tools, took 17 years to complete the project, finishing the central mausoleum in 1648. The workers benefited from the help of more than 1,000 elephants.   They came from all over Asia: stone cutters from Baluchistan, Pakistan; sculptors from Bukhara, India; inlayers from southern India; calligraphers from Syria and Persia; a specialist in turrets; and another who carved only marble flowers. Thirty-seven such craftsmen formed a "creative unit."   A city, Mumtazabad, was actually created to accommodate all the workers. In Agra, they found a way to carry the heavy materials to the top of the 145-foot-high mausoleum dome; they built a 10-mile ramp that ran through the city. Materials —including ivory white marble and 40 types of gems — also came from all over: Iraq, Tibet, Turkestan and from within the Muslim Mughal empire.   Another legend has it that Shah Jahan, impatient after hearing it would take five years to remove the enormous brick scaffolding that supported the construction of the dome, declared that anyone who helped disassemble the bricks could keep them. It all came down overnight.   A Testament to Architectural Design   The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designated the Taj Mahal as a World Heritage site in 1983, meaning it has significant cultural and historical significance. That kind of significance almost goes without saying, but a UNESCO designation legally protects the site from harm or destruction in international treaties.   As UNESCO aptly describes in an overview of the structure and grounds, this wonder of the world is almost a sensory overload. It is a "rhythmic combination of solids and voids, concave and convex, and light shadow." Arches and domes "increase the aesthetic aspect," and "the relief work in marble and inlay with precious and semiprecious stones make it a monument apart."   UNESCO points to three architectural design innovations that accentuate the beauty and majesty of the structure and grounds. First, placing Mumtaz Mahal's tomb at one end of the site's four section garden, instead of in the exact center, adds depth and perspective to the distant view of the monument. Also, the four free-standing minarets that stand on the corners of the mausoleum offer "not only a kind of spatial reference to the monument but also give a three-dimensional effect to the edifice."   Lastly, UNESCO believes the Taj Mahal offers a perfect construct of symmetrical shapes, textures and colors that blend with dissimilar shapes, textures and colors in other spots. For instance, the mosque and the guest house in the proper complex are built of red sandstone, in contrast to the marble tomb in the center. Also, two main walkways and narrower cross-axial walkways precisely divide the walled garden into four sections.   Purposely Tricking Millions of Eyes   It's no wonder why the majority of visitors don't rush when on the grounds. Staring at it all is expected.   As Smithsonian observes, "the architects and craftsmen of the Taj Mahal were masters of proportions and tricks of the eye. When you first approach the main gate that frames the Taj, for example, the monument appears incredibly close and large. But as you get closer, it shrinks in size, exactly the opposite of what you'd expect." 

The Taj Mahal Stuns Millions of Visitors With Symmetrical Beauty

Human history is complicated. Experts seeking to understand how, what, when and where we discovered tool use or lost our forebearers' fur are continually constrained by limited evidence. While prehistoric preservation provides some parts of the puzzle, historians face the challenge of not knowing exactly how the pieces fit together — or what the whole picture looks like.    Recent genome analysis, however, has helped shed light on one contentious question: Did ancient Polynesians ever meet Native Americans? As it turns out, the evidence is clear: They connected in Colombia.    Po-ta-to, Pa-tah-to    The oceanic/South American meetup has been floated before, but reactions were consistently mixed. Why? Because the tale rested on a tuber technicality.    As noted by Science magazine, sweet potatoes were originally domesticated and grown in the Andes of South America, but also cropped up in one other place before Europeans arrived: Polynesia. This potato plurality plus a similar-sounding word for these veggies in Polynesian and Indigenous American languages gave rise to the idea that oceanic explorers could have made their way across the Pacific and found new friends on the shores or outlying islands of western South America.    The problem? These potato data points were largely circumstantial. Attempts to analyze their origins didn't answer the question — as it turns out, potato genetics are too complicated to solve for their shared or separate spread across the Southern Hemisphere. This left scientists in an evidentiary bind: While one ancestral analysis of Rapa Nui residents (also called Easter Island) revealed Native American connections, another showed seemingly no connection, and DNA analysis of ancient bones also came up short.    With potatoes out of the picture and no definitive DNA determination, a new approach to human history was required: genome analysis.    Masters of Wind and Wave    According Smithsonian Magazine, one thing historians can agree on is that Polynesian explorers were skilled enough to find and settle islands spanning more than 16 million square miles of the Pacific Ocean. They made it all the way to Rapa Nui — 2,300 miles from the coast of Chile — meaning it's certainly within the realm of possibility that they pushed on to South America. Studies have also suggested that Native Americans could have made the trek westward into the Pacific but this is less likely since most of their watercraft were designed for close coastal fishing and travel.    To solve this relational riddle, scientists from Stanford Medicine turned to big data, deep-genome analysis in their paper, "Native American gene flow into Polynesia predating Easter Island settlement."  As noted by the study's co-lead author Alexander Ioannidis, "Genomics is at a stage where it can really make useful contributions to answering some of these open questions." The team collected saliva samples from 807 participants from 15 Native American groups on the Pacific coast and across 17 Polynesian islands, and then went hunting for snippets of DNA that were "identical by descent" — inherited from the same common ancestor.    The technique paid off: Genome analysis found that Polynesian and South American peoples met around A.D. 1200, most likely in what's now Colombia, and produced children that shared genetic heritage, giving rise to the long tail of DNA history. While it's impossible to pinpoint the exact time and place of this cultural connection, the evidence is clear — before Europeans ever made their cross-Atlantic journey, the masters of wind and wave conquered the Pacific.    Navigating a New Narrative    Beyond the benefits of connecting the dots on circumstantial potato progenation to inter-cultural meet-and-greets, there's a broader impact here: New perspectives on historical narratives.    Ioannidis puts it simply: "If you think about how history is told for this time period, it's almost always a story of European conquest, and you never really hear about everybody else." Both South and North American exploration are typically couched in terms of European endeavors — with mentions of the Vikings tossed in occasionally for good measure — but there's a deafening silence around the interaction of other Indigenous groups across the globe.    In effect, genome analysis is helping researchers broaden their understanding of human history by providing parallel stories of exploration and shedding new light on our deep-seated drive for discovery.   

Genome Analysis Confirms Ancient Cultural Connection

It doesn't take long to find a dragon. Dig into the mythos of almost any culture across the globe and you'll find details about dragons. For some, these lizards were signs of good luck; for others, they were the harbingers of evil.No matter where humans went around the world, it seems dragons followed. But did dragons exist? And where did the idea of dragons come from? Is there any scientific evidence to support the existence of these mythical monsters? Let's fire it up.Here — and Everywhere — Be DragonsIn English, the term "dragon" is typically traced back to the Ancient Greek "drakon" and the Latin "draco," which both (unsurprisingly) mean serpent. As Tor notes, a deeper look at the root word in Greek suggests its origin is "derk-," which means "to see." But despite millennia of dragon descriptions, eyewitnesses were conspicuously absent.What do these "maybe saw it, maybe didn't" sightings tell us about dragons? First, the sheer variety of reports suggests they aren't confined to one continent or culture. This makes sense — if these giant beasts really did exist, globetrotting would hardly be a challenge. But descriptions of dragons aren't consistent. While many countries have a storied history of dragon sightings, accounts of what these lizards look like and how they behave vary considerably.In Norse mythology, Jé¶rmungandr, also called the Midgard Serpent or the World Serpent, featured the fairly standard wings and fire-breathing we still associate with dragons today. In Greek, Typhon was known as the father of all monsters and had 100 dragon heads sprouting from his shoulders. In Babylon, the death of the sea-dragon Tiamat enabled the creation of Earth.Dragons also made their way to China and Africa. In China, dragons were considered a benevolent source of good fortune that swam in lakes and oceans and soared through the skies. Unlike their Western counterparts, these dragons were more snake-like with long, lithe bodies and large eyes, but they had no wings. In Africa, meanwhile, dragons such as Ayida and Damballah were depicted as intertwined serpents.Let's Get Lit(erature)Thanks to continual sightings and legends repeated over and over, dragons made their way into popular consciousness — and popular literature.Consider the dragon Smaug from Tolkien's "The Hobbit, or There and Back Again." Smaug is the classically malicious, fire-breathing treasure-hoarder that lived in a cave and had no problem roasting people alive. Or, look at more recent dragon depictions, such as those in the TV series, "Game of Thrones." Hatched from eggs bathed in fire at the beginning of the series, these dragons formed a bond with a woman immune to their flames and went on to raze cities and armies on her command.These mythical beasts have made countless appearances in video games, as well, from the rot-infested fire-breathers in FromSoftware's "Elden Ring" to the loudmouthed flying lizards in Bethesda's "The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim." Dragons have also made their way into tabletop games, such as the eponymous "Dungeons & Dragons," which defines three families of these creatures: metallic, chromatic and gem.Now, dragons are everywhere, from sci-fi and fantasy novels to kids' movies and literature. Some of these dragons are capable of speech, and some simply roar. Some can breathe multiple types of fire, while others rely on fangs and claws. Some can be tamed and ridden into the wild blue yonder; others serve only as destructive, uncontrollable forces.Dragons and the Human ConditionWhere did the idea of dragons come from? While there's no single answer, multiple origin points have been suggested. First up are dinosaur bones. As Smithsonian Magazine notes, it's not a stretch to think that massive, unidentified bones — such as those belonging to a Tyrannosaurus rex — could be mistaken for the remnants of a dragon.Whale bones are another option: The sheer size of these skeletons may have suggested that they were naturally predatory and could have formed the basis of dragon descriptions. Reptiles are another contender. Take, for example, the Nile Crocodile, which can reach 18 feet in length and has the ability to "high walk," where it raises its stomach off the ground to give a more dragon-like gait.It's also possible that human evolution is responsible for our dragon fixation. Just like other animal species, we have an innate fear of large predators, and some of the most persistent predator traits, such as massive size, sharp claws and the ability to swoop down unexpectedly, gave rise to the general idea of a dragon.There is some adjacent scientific support for this notion thanks to the idea of "convergent evolution," which sees independent organisms evolving similar traits. Crabs offer a prime example: According to ScienceAlert, the evolution of crab-like bodies across multiple species has happened at least five times in the last 250 million years, and this crabbiness has been lost seven times or more. For whatever reason, crabs continue to evolve again and again.The same may be true of our dragon descriptions. Humans across the globe may have been evolutionarily predisposed to collectively dream up a nightmarish creature with similar features that could seriously ruin our days.So, we come back to our original question: Did dragons exist? In our collective imaginations, absolutely. In real life, probably not. While it makes sense that massive, unidentified bones combined with smaller creatures that look like they could be dragon relatives inspired the legends, we'll have to be satisfied with fictional dragon depictions to fuel the fire of our mythical mentality.Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery in science, technology, and engineering.

Did Dragons Exist? Exploring the Mythical Monster Mystery

Humans have done some amazing things with tools. There's the Aqueduct of Segovia, with its precisely cut Roman stone arches towering above and snaking below the Spanish landscape for miles. Or consider the pyramids at Giza; blocks of stone were cut using copper chisels and drills, "tumbled" using levers and pulled along wooden sledges to the building site. More than 4,500 year later these monuments still stand, with the tallest rising nearly 500 feet to dominate the desert skyline. The origin of these handyman habits is our early hominid ancestor, Homo erectus (H.erectus). In fact, recent discoveries suggest that this prehistoric group may have broadened their building and broken horizons with the use of multiple stone age tools. Here's how they doubled down on DIY. Homo Same-ians? According to the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, African H. erectus "are the oldest known early humans to have possessed modern human-like body proportions with relatively elongated legs and shorter arms compared to the size of the torso." These features suggest a body adapted for life on the ground — similar to Homo sapiens (H. sapiens). In fact, these close cousins outpaced our historic span significantly — H. erectus walked the Earth for well over a million years, in contrast to H. sapiens trifling 300,000. These prehistoric people also share a critical human characteristic: tool use. What's more, H. erectus hand axe improvements get the nod for earliest stone age tool tweak, putting them head and shoulders above the competition when it came to conquering the landscape. As noted by Inverse, Homo erectus also enjoyed a diverse diet — recent analysis suggests these proto-people "had a varied, omnivorous diet, dining on eggs, insects, plants and more." But considerable commonalities come with a question: Why did H. sapiens survive as H. erectus slipped into the sunset? One popular theory posits a lack of flexibility: While our ancestors iterated and innovated, H. erectus stagnated and starved. New discoveries, however, make this suggestion suspect. These early humans may have multi-tasked — and multi-tooled — much better than previously thought. He's a Tool Operator This stone age tools shake-up started with the discovery of multiple skull fragments in Ethiopia dating back 1.26 and 1.5 million years, respectively. As noted by New Scientist, the skulls were found directly alongside stone tools, which, according to research team member Michael Rogers of Southern Connecticut State University, "is good evidence that these hominins were the creators of those artefacts." Since they probably weren't carrying them around as keepsakes, the find offers insight into the tools these H. erectus members actually used day to day. Of no surprise to scientists were the so-called Acheulian tools, which include the classic pear-shaped hand axe used by Homo erectus across the globe. These Acheulian tools — often symmetrical, well-shaped and sharpened on two edges — replaced earlier Oldowan tools, which were much simpler, sharp-edged stone flakes. This is where things go off the rails, since both skulls were found close to both tool types. The discovery lends credence to the notion that H. erectus was more jack-of-all-trades than one-note wonder and suggests the species may have displayed more behavioral flexibility than believed. While Acheulian tools were great for butchering meat, their Oldowan precursors were ideal for chopping and scraping. By deploying a multi-mode model, H. erectus was able to both create — and identify — the right tool for the job. When All You Have Is a Hammer As it turns out, even Homo erectus doesn't have a lock on targeted tool use. According to Science News, Paranthropus boisei (P. boisei) — a distant relative of modern humans that lived between 2.3 and 1.2 million years ago — may have also made stone and bone tools. While they lacked the gripping thumbs of genus Homo, recent P. boisei hand bone discoveries suggest they had enough dexterity to create and wield simple tools. If further research and evidence bears out this theory, it follows that common problems lead to similar solutions: multi-purpose tools that made it possible to hammer down on cultural nails ranging from crafting to cutting to scraping and slicing. Modern tools can raise buildings of steel and glass at speed and scale. Ancient implements carved out constructive marvels that still stand as testament to human ingenuity. But whatever we've done, however far we've come — our handy human history remains written in stone.

Homo Erectus Were the First Historical Handymen

Rome rises again — literally. This trip into the engineering wonders of our world takes us almost 30 meters (nearly 100 feet) off the ground to analyze the Aqueduct of Segovia, one of the best-preserved Roman aqueducts. Nearly two millennia old, the structure may not match the pyramids for sheer longevity but remains an enduring symbol of Rome's commitment to building functional and almost frighteningly over-engineered edifices of efficiency.   Let's dive in and discover the why, what, where and how of this ancient Roman engineering feat.   Water, Water Everywhere   Roman aqueducts were designed to carry water from local springs or rivers to cities or towns. As noted by Interesting Engineering, during the early Roman imperial era, these aqueducts delivered water to more than a million people across the empire.   The Aqueduct of Segovia is a classic example of Roman water transport architecture, with parts of the original system still in use today. Located in Segovia, Spain, this system starts at the Frio River, approximately 15 kilometers (almost 10 miles) from the city itself, according to the World Monuments Fund. Partially buried underground and using the natural landscape to direct water flow, the aqueduct eventually reaches a 30-meter (nearly 100 feet) deep valley; to cross the span, Roman engineers built what is commonly referred to as the Aqueduct of Segovia — a two-tiered set of arches and channels with foundations 6 meters (about 20 feet) deep.   While the exact time of construction is unknown — some sources suggest 50 A.D., others push the data forward to 100 or 120 A.D. — any variance pales in comparison to overall longevity; few modern structures make it past the 100-year mark, let alone two millennia.   Duct and Cover   Likely built under the rule of either Emperor Domitian, Nerva or Trajan, the Segovia aqueduct was a critical infrastructure project. While the town itself was small and isolated, Ancient Origins notes that Segovia was located on the main road between two larger Roman settlements, making it an important stop for goods and travelers alike.   According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, the aqueduct bridge was constructed using more than 24,000 granite blocks — also called ashlars — held together without mortar. Its highest point is almost 30 meters (nearly 100 feet) above ground, with a six meter (about 20 feet) deep foundation to support the nearly 20,000-ton span of arches. While most Roman aqueducts relied on a single tier of arches to reach the necessary height, the sharp drop-off into the valley just before Segovia itself required a second level to ensure water flow. The sheer scope of the bridge project helped cement its place in history and explains why many descriptions of the aqueduct focus on the span itself, which represents just 5% of the project's complete length.   Focusing on the bridge in isolation also ignores essential Roman innovation: desanding basins, known as "desarenadors," at multiple points along the aqueduct route. By slowing the flow of water through these basins, Roman engineers were able to leverage the process of decantation and remove the bulk of river sand from their water supply, improving both quality and safety. Building the aqueduct system likely took between two and five years, from initial planning stages that included water quality testing, slope analysis and evaluation of the physical condition of locals who regularly drank from the source. Slaves were the typical source of labor, and would have been required to both move heavy blocks by hand and dig massive trenches to support channels and foundations.   The original bridge work contained three niches with bronze plaques that listed builder names and construction dates. One included an image of Hercules — supposed founder of the city — but all have since been lost.   Liquid Longevity   Now a World Heritage Site, the Aqueduct of Segovia is both a tourist attraction and testament to Roman ingenuity. But the waterway hasn't always fared so well — while later projects used more resilient Roman cement, the granite blocks of Segovia began to erode over time. This was especially evident in the desanding chambers, which required regular cleanings to remove sand buildup and replace damaged stonework. After the fall of the Roman Empire, many fell into disrepair.   In 1072 A.D., an invasion by Yahya ibn Ismail Al-Mamun destroyed approximately 36 arches; some of the dislodged stones were then used to rebuild the castle of King Alfonso VI. In the late 15th century the damaged aqueduct sections were rebuilt, with further preservation efforts in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Between 1803 and 1806, all buildings adjacent to the bridge were demolished to make repairs easier and increase structural integrity.   While the Aqueduct of Segovia doesn't hold the title of Rome's biggest aqua architecture project — Pont du Gard gets the nod for highest bridge and Constantinople gets the most sophisticated system award — the waterway is nonetheless a feat of ancient Roman engineering that represents a high water mark in the empire's ability to streamline, strengthen and support critical infrastructure. 

Why Segovia Stands Out Among Roman Aqueducts as an Engineering Marvel

In 1927, scientist and religious figure Georges Lemaître proposed a revolutionary theory of the universe: that everything had begun with a Big Bang. Almost a century later, we now have strong evidence supporting that theory and that the universe is still expanding today. But what does the future of the universe hold?
To understand what’s to come and where we are now, it’s important to look back. According to University of Michigan professor of physics Fred Adams, Ph.D., and Yale University professor of astronomy Greg Laughlin, Ph.D., there are five eras of the universe. Let’s take a look at each.
1. The Primordial Era
At the beginning of everything, around 13.7 billion years ago, all the matter in the universe was concentrated in an incredibly dense area smaller than that of a dime. Then, it began to expand.
The Big Bang occurred in the first era of the universe, the Primordial Era, and it left the universe extremely hot. Once it began to rapidly cool, this led to prime conditions for quarks to combine and produce protons and neutrons. These subatomic particles produced the first atoms — the building blocks of our universe.
Radiation dominated this first era, which lasted about 100,000 years. It ended with the birth of the first stars and galaxies.
2. The Stelliferous Era
The second of the eras of the universe is the Stelliferous Era — the time in which we currently live. Most of the energy in our universe is produced in the hearts of stars, and matter is concentrated in galaxies and galaxy clusters. “Stelliferous” means “filled with stars,” and that is the dominant type of matter in this second era.
It started with the birth of the first stars and the formation of the first galaxies. It will end with the last stars as galaxies run out of hydrogen, which is crucial to star formation. The end of the Stelliferous Era means the end of the most long-lived stars, red dwarfs.
3. The Degenerate Era
The future of our universe is somewhat dismal. This third era of the universe, the Degenerate Era, will come about after the death of all stars. Much of the matter in the universe will be housed in the dead remnants of stars — white dwarfs, brown dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes.
Without the warmth and glow of starlight, the universe will be a cold and dark place. This being the case, it goes without saying that all life in the universe will likely cease to exist after the Stelliferous Era. Occasionally, stars may form thanks to the collision of brown dwarfs, but these will be few and far between.
Dark matter will also disappear during this era, as it’s consumed by white dwarfs. The Degenerate Era will come to an end when the protons and neutrons housed within white dwarfs, the dominant form of matter in this era, begin to decay.
4. The Black Hole Era
After leaving the Degenerate Era, the universe will proceed to its fourth age: the Black Hole Era. The only recognizable objects left will be black holes. When the last white dwarfs disappear, the black holes will consume what’s left and become even larger.
But even black holes are not immortal. They will slowly evaporate through a process called Hawking radiation. When the last of the black holes are gone, and there is no energy production left in the universe, the end of the Black Hole Era will be upon us.
5. The Dark Era and the Heat Death of the Universe
The final era of the universe is one in which there is nothing left, just the byproducts of decay and evaporation. The end of our universe is markedly similar to the beginning: no stars, nothing generating energy.
Many scientists believe that the end will come with the heat death of the universe. In this case, heat death doesn’t mean that the universe will become super hot. It’s actually the opposite. Eventually, the universe will run out of free thermodynamic energy, which means there will be no energy to sustain motion. The universe will, essentially, die from lack of heat, because everything everywhere will be the exact same temperature.
It may seem like a dismal fate for the future of the universe, but remember: science creates possibilities. There may be billions of universes out there, different from our own, and scientists have looked into tunneling from one to another. The heat death of our universe may not, in fact, be the end of everything, and as we explore further into space and push the boundaries of science, we’ll learn more about how our universe was formed and what we can do in the future.
Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are, too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.

The 5 Eras of the Universe — and Its Heat Death

It's amazing to think that old bones buried underground can offer clues on the history of human evolution. The perseverance of archaeologists, the experience of anthropologists and advancements in technology continue to overcome the complexities of unearthing ancient materials, further illustrating the evolutionary path that humans have walked. Still, anthropology and genetics can't answer every question about the past. The recent discovery of a skull in Africa, coupled with new findings about the possibility of "ghost" DNA, doesn't lead to any new great understanding of why our species, Homo sapiens, managed to evolve from other human relatives and survive. While there is a lot to unpack in the new revelations, there is also a lot that can't be unpacked. At the very least, though, the skull could provide some useful insight in the quest to find out who we are. "It gives us objective data for the long-term trends behind the Homo lineage that leads to us," Robert Goodby, a professor of anthropology at Franklin Pierce University in Rindge, New Hampshire, said of the skull. But, he added, claiming the skull is proof that there is a lost species within the Homo genus, as some scientists do, is a claim that is based on incomplete evidence. "It's all chaotic but getting us toward a reality," Goodby said. "And that reality is when you're relying on fossil evidence, it's important to realize how fragmentary that is." Discovering "Ghost" DNA Early this year, in a Science Advances journal article, a geneticist and computational biologist — both from the University of California, Los Angeles — wrote that they found a group of ancient humans that no one knew had existed. What's striking about the UCLA study is the researchers didn't rely on ancient DNA to make their case. They don't have any bones, for that matter. They based their hypothesis on the DNA of living people. The researchers studied the genomes of 405 people now living in Nigeria and Sierra Leone and using statistical models found strands of DNA that come from a species that is not modern human. The researchers posit that this unknown group of humans procreated with another Homo species about 50,000 years ago in what is now West Africa. They're successors of metaphoric "ghosts." Fifty millennia ago, several Homo species walked the Earth. Sapiens coexisted and mated with neanderthalensis; the genes of contemporary humans who are of European and Asian descent show those Neanderthal traits. Sapiens also mated with Denisovans, whose genetic code is seen in those who are native to Oceania. Despite the evidence, there are a lot of missing parts, and the finding of a "ghost" DNA only complicates our understanding of those early humans. "It's almost certainly the case that the story is incredibly complex and complicated and we have kind of these initial hints about the complexity," Sriram Sankararaman, a UCLA computational biologist and one of the study's authors told NPR. He added: "We don't have a clear identity for this archaic group. That's why we use the term 'ghost.' It doesn't seem to be particularly closely related to the groups from which we have genome sequences from." The mystery Homo species "appears to have split off from the ancestors of modern humans a little before when Neanderthals split off from our ancestors," Sankararaman said. Another Homo Species Months after the UCLA study, other researchers announced they had come to a conclusion about a skull that was discovered in 1921, from a mine known as Broken Hill in what is now Zambia. The Broken Hill skull is widely considered to be one of the best-preserved skulls of a fossil hominin, and the researchers believed it might be from the "ghost" population. The researchers say their discovery potentially verifies that three separate Homo species lived together in Africa roughly 300 millennia ago. "We can now identify at least three distinct and contemporary (Homo) lineages in Africa about 300,000 years ago, but we don't yet know whether our ancestry was largely or entirely contained within the (Homo) sapiens part of that variation," paleoanthropologist and study coauthor Chris Stringer, of the Natural History Museum in London, told ScienceNews. The researchers say Homo heidelbergensis could have been the "ghost" population. Along with Homo sapiens, the third species that lived during that time was Homo naledi. The researchers also say the heidelbergensis population might have made double-edged stone implements that were found near the Broken Hill skull. Similar implements have been tied to Homo sapiens, they said. But at least one archeologist who was not part of the study — Eleanor Scerri of the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Germany — says it's unclear if Homo heidelbergensis made the artifacts. She also notes that the implements can't be positively connected to the Broken Hill skull. Still, a "seemingly reliable age of approximately 300,000 years" for Homo heidelbergensis in Africa corresponds with the idea that Homo sapiens began evolving across Africa at the same time, Scerri told ScienceNews. Tracing a Juniper Bush While instructive, the two recent studies illustrate how agendas of researchers often complicate the history of human evolution, according to Goodby, the Franklin Pierce anthropology professor. Such work is inherently scientific, "and that's important," but another side of archeology and anthropology is that it is "a very creative undertaking," he said. "You're looking for this data and finding it, and not only interpreting it but also bringing it back to a larger audience," Goodby said. "As a scientist you have some leeway in how you emphasize and present it." Speaking generally of some scientists in the field, Goodby said "social pressures" skew how fossils are interpreted. "Say you're a young archeologist and you find some young human fossils. If you find a fossil skull and compare it to other fossil skulls and say it has many similarities with the homo erectus and label it as such, that's all well and good but no one will pay much attention. You won't be on the cover of National Geographic." But a scientist who, for example, emphasizes differences between the molar enamel of a newly found skull and previously discovered skulls and thus gives his finding a new species name, "now you're making headlines," Goodby said.  Goodby is not suggesting that fame is the motivation of the researchers who are suggesting a tie between the Broken Hill skull and the "ghost" DNA, but he advises those outside of the field to keep those "social pressures" in mind when reading about a supposed new species. "The last 30 years have brought a tremendous increase in the amount of useful data, but we also have a proliferation of new species names," he said. "One problem is we have this simple notion of human evolution, thinking it would look like a nice tree with distinct branches and not many of them. Every fossil would have a clear branch and a place on the tree." Instead, Goodby says we should consider the advice offered by paleontologist and historian Stephen Jay Gould, who in 1976 wrote a column for Natural History titled, "Ladders, Bushes, and Human Evolution." Gould wrote that anthropologists were "overlooking things," according to Goodby. "Rather than being a ladder with each species on each rung, the tree of evolution is more like a juniper bush, which has tightly clustered branches that each have twigs, and each with needles on them," Goodby said. "Gould said that's the process of evolution."

The History of Human Evolution Is Complicated, Despite New Findings

 Howard Aiken conceptualized and developed the world's first large-scale computer. While he was working on his doctoral thesis at Harvard, Aiken had to solve nonlinear differential equations, which were tedious and too complex for calculators to handle. This dilemma gave him the idea to create a calculator that was powerful enough to handle advanced mathematics.Mark I Together with a small team of engineers, including pioneering computer programmer Grace Hopper, Aiken spent five years designing and building a massive electromechanical computer. It cost $250,000 to build, equivalent to $3.4 million today. The Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, nicknamed the Mark I, was unveiled and put to work in 1944.  It was a cumbersome, noisy machine made of nearly 760,000 parts. Hardly resembling today's sleek touchscreen computers, the Mark I filled an entire room with clicking metal parts. It used prepunched paper tape for input and typewriters for output. Mark I was slow but steady, and stayed in use for a decade. It took between three and six seconds just to add two numbers and it could run continuously for 24 hours a day, seven days a week. It was clunky, mechanical, and and slow, but Howard Aiken's innovative early computer paved the way for today's advanced digital technology. Today a computer of that size would be capable of computing, storing, analyzing and communicating enormous amounts of data much more quickly. For example, Northrop Grumman is developing an Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) system of satellites with a payload that delivers the new XDR (Extreme Data Rate) communications services with data rates as fast as 8.192 Mbps per user.A Remarkable Career Creating the Mark I was just the first highlight of Howard Aiken's rich career. He was an electrical engineer, a mathematician, a physicist, a naval officer and ultimately a computer scientist. At Harvard, he taught applied mathematics and directed the Harvard Computation Laboratory. He also developed the country's first master's and doctoral programs in computer science. He mentored many of the world's first computer scientists and directed a team that published fundamental research in switching theory, data processing, and computing components and circuits. During World War II, Aiken and his team used the Mark I for strategic wartime work. They solved top-secret calculations such as computing rocket trajectories, gunnery, ballistics and naval design. His team also designed later versions of the computer that were used for scientific research and military calculations.Howard Aiken's Legacy Continues Today When Aiken passed away in 1973, the New York Times published his obituary with the heading, "Howard H. Aiken, Built Computer." He was quoted as saying, "The only advantage of computers is greatly increased speed. But they can act only on information fed into them. And such information depends on the judgment of executives. Executive decisions may be speeded by its results." He was speaking during the early age of computers, but his words are more relevant today than ever, with automation in just about every workplace. The Mark I and Aiken's complete body of work are the foundation for modern day computing. He gave computer scientists the tools that evolved into today's vibrant information technology field. Now, with the proliferation of IoT, social media and electronic gadgets, sensors and systems are everywhere so an overwhelming amount of data is available. Aiken's work — building the machine and painstakingly documenting mathematical tables — gives us the ability to make sense of big data. Aiken couldn't possibly have imagined the rich and varied ways that his calculating machine and its successors would be used today.

Howard Aiken: The Original Computer Scientist

Astronomy discoveries are not always made with telescopes or space probes. A dagger made of iron from the asteroid belt turned up in Egypt nearly a hundred years ago, though only in 2016 were scientists able to confirm its extraterrestrial origin. The iron dagger was found, according to History.com, next to the mummy of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen — better known today as King Tut. Along with another dagger made of gold, King Tut's meteorite dagger was carefully placed in the tomb for the young pharaoh's use in the afterlife, and buried with him around 1350 BCE. Iron From the Sky The date is significant, History.com explained, because the era around 1350 BCE was the height of the Bronze Age. Egyptian and Eastern Mediterranean technology of the day was capable of producing fine metalwork in bronze (an alloy of copper and tin), or gold. But the ability to produce high-quality artifacts from smelted iron did not appear until at least 1200 BCE, more than a century after Tutankhamen. What the ancient Egyptians did know how to do, however, was make fine objects — such as King Tut's meteorite dagger — from iron that already existed in high-purity form. And they knew that iron of this quality fell from the sky. Egyptian hieroglyphic writing even had a special symbol meaning "iron from heaven," reported Discover magazine. A Precious Metal in One of the Greatest Archeological Discoveries This pure meteoric iron was a rare and precious material, worth more than its weight in gold — making King Tut's meteorite dagger a fitting offering to place in the tomb of a pharaoh. As History.com explained, the meteoric origins of the dagger have been suspected since its discovery beside Tutankhamen's mummy in 1925. Until recently, however, there was no way to test the actual composition of the dagger without destroying it — not a practical research project, given the unique archeological, historical and aesthetic value of objects from Tutankhamen's tomb. Efforts to determine the dagger's composition in the 1970s and 1990s were inconclusive, even controversial. But more recently, a new technology called portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry was called upon to examine the ancient technology of King Tut's meteorite dagger. Technology, New and Ancient The spectrometry technology, according to History.com, allowed precise determination of the composition of the dagger without damaging or even touching the dagger itself. And tests showed the dagger to be composed of iron, nickel and cobalt, in proportions not found in Earth's iron ore deposits, but typical of meteorites that originated in the asteroid belt. In fact, the measurements of the King Tut meteorite dagger not only confirmed the extraterrestrial origin of its iron, but indicated that the precise composition of the dagger matches that of a meteorite found near the Egyptian seaport city of Marsa Matruh. The meteorite, now called Kharga, was found in 2000, and contains a mixture of iron with 10.8 percent nickel and 0.58 percent cobalt — the same composition as the dagger. None of the ten other meteorites found in or near Egypt matched that particular composition. Tutankhamen's tomb is not only one of the world's most famous archeological discoveries: It continues to be a source of astronomy discoveries, insights into ancient Egypt, and evidence of how iron technology gradually developed during the Bronze Age.

King Tut's Meteorite Dagger: It Came From Outer Space

Despite the tragic disaster that was the voyage of the Titanic, shipping company Blue Star Line is looking to replicate the ship, with Titanic II construction now underway. In 1912, the original Titanic was the largest passenger ship of its time, and even though the builders called it "unsinkable," five days after launch, it hit an iceberg and sunk in less than three short hours. Approximately 1,500 people died in this famous tragedy. The disaster was even more famous with the 1997 film "Titanic." So why would anyone want to repeat one of the biggest failures in history? A Replica With Modern Technology The new project could potentially have the same grandeur of the original ship, but with modern marine technology to keep all passengers safe. Australian businessman Clive Palmer is backing Titanic II construction, with a price tag of approximately $500 million, according to Business Insider. The new version would maintain the cabin layout, class categories, restaurants, dining rooms and length of the original. It would have the same architecture, including the smoking room, indoor pool and iconic grand staircase that made the ship so appealing. The plan is to sail along the same route as the original â€¦ but with today's navigation systems and safety equipment. What Went Wrong the First Time Around? History reports that several problems caused Titanic to sink, even though the ship was equipped with the best technology of its time, such as a sophisticated electrical control panel and an advanced wireless communications system that could transmit Morse code. Despite these precautions, the Titanic was not as safe as it appeared. The ship was traveling too fast, the wireless radio operator ignored a key iceberg warning and hazy environmental conditions contributed to the tragedy. The ship's construction wasn't perfect, and the Titanic broke apart on the ocean's surface. The ship's 3 million rivets had "a high concentration of 'slag,' a smelting residue that can make metal split apart," according to History.com. This defect could have weakened the part of the hull that hit the iceberg. How Is Titanic II Different? The new ship will have a sturdier welded hull instead of a riveted one, according to Business Insider. The original was equipped with only 20 lifeboats, which was enough for one-third of the passengers. Titanic II will have a new safety deck to hold the right number of lifeboats for all passengers and crew, just in case of a disaster scenario. For added stability, Blue Star says the new version will be a few meters wider than the original. Big boats are common now, and Business Insider points out that today's cruise ships are actually much bigger than the Titanic. While there are some construction improvements that should help make the new vessel sturdier, the main improvements are not aimed at surviving an iceberg but avoiding one in the first place. There have been many technological improvements since the disaster that should keep the second ship from suffering the same fate. Technology Improvements Today's boat captains have the aid of global positioning system (GPS) to guide navigation. Marine Insight points out that marine radar is the most used equipment on the ship's bridge. Radar technology was introduced in World War II, and it has improved since then. While the original Titanic relied on a human lookout aided with binoculars, today's ships benefit from radar that is enhanced with computer technology. The result: Boats can be equipped with automatic collision avoidance and detection data. Now we also have data about iceberg locations. After the disastrous Titanic sinking, The International Ice Patrol was established. Today, the group monitors 500,000 square miles of ocean, watching for icebergs in shipping lanes so that captains can know in advance where the danger is and they can plan the route accordingly. According to Popular Science, the only recent issues with iceberg collisions have happened to ships that didn't heed the Ice Patrol's warnings. With today's communication systems, navigation, radar technology and safety regulations, large passenger ships are far better prepared to avoid icebergs. Titanic II construction might look like its predecessor, but vintage furnishings will be underpinned by advanced marine technology. The new ship is expected to set sail in 2022. 

Titanic II Construction Is the Tip of the Iceberg

Carl Sagan's birthday was Nov. 9, and he would have been 84 years old this year. Sagan died in 1996, so he missed the first launch of SpaceX's Falcon 9 rocket and Curiosity's Mars landing, among other notable moments in space exploration. Since his death was more than 20 years ago, most millennials are probably only dimly aware of Sagan, except that he was the previous host of "Cosmos" before Neil deGrasse Tyson. But Sagan was more than a TV presence; he published over 600 scientific papers and was the co-author or editor of more than 20 books, according to Google Scholar: He was a catalyst for many advances in space research. Sagan's legacy cajoles the scientific community to take the possibility of life on other planets seriously. He reasoned that life must be abundant in the universe because there are so many stars, and the sun is a typical star, according to a New York Times obituary. While that vision hasn't come to pass yet, Sagan's influence on the topic is considerable. Below are his three most notable contributions to science. The "Pale Blue Dot" In 1990, when Voyager I was on the cusp of leaving our solar system, hurtling towards interstellar space, it was Sagan's idea to turn the spacecraft's cameras back toward the home planet so viewers could gain perspective. The Pale Blue Dot, as the photo is famously known, showed an infinitesimal Earth almost 4 billion miles away. "That's here," Sagan said, in an account in the Express. "That's home. That's us. On it, everyone you love, everyone you know, everyone you have ever heard of, every human being who ever was, lived out their lives...[E]very king and peasant, every young couple in love, every mother and father, hopeful child, inventor and explorer, every revered teacher of morals, every corrupt politician, every superstar, every supreme leader, every saint and sinner in the history of our species lived there—on a mote of dust suspended in a sunbeam." Sagan's imprint — a "golden record" with recordings of sights and sounds from Earth — remains on the Voyager I probes 41 years later, recounted NPR. Sagan and a team of scientists were tasked to come up with sounds to represent the world. The record, which is duplicated for each probe, contains 115 images plus sounds of ocean, wind, thunder and birds. But mostly it contains music and languages representing the entire earth. From Solomon Island pan pipes to Chuck Berry, it was meant to be a sign of peace and goodwill to extraterrestrial beings. Missions to Mars, Venus and Jupiter Besides his influence on the details of the Voyager I, Sagan designed and managed missions to Mars, Venus and Jupiter helping propel advances in space research. In 1960, as a doctoral student he uncovered the mystery of Venus' high surface temperature, concluding it was a massive greenhouse effect that made its surface inhospitable to any forms of life at over 600 degrees Fahrenheit, according to NPR. But Sagan said his research still did not rule out the possibility of life in the planet's atmosphere. That hope guided recent new research that points to possible life in Venus' clouds, according to Popular Mechanics. As Wired reported, in his role as a visiting scientist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, Sagan helped design and manage various missions to space. Educating the Public About Space As NASA recalls, Sagan was often described as "the scientist who made the Universe clearer to the ordinary person." He helped to popularize science through the writing of hundreds of articles and over two dozen books. He won a Pulitzer Prize in 1975 for his book "The Dragons of Eden." Sagan's television series "Cosmos" was one of the most-watched shows in public television history. More than 500 million people in 60 different countries tuned in, according to Slate. As a result, Sagan became a celebrity and even launched the catchphrase "billions and billions," which How Stuff Works reported Sagan never actually said but is rather based on Johnny Carson's imitation of Sagan. Carl Sagan's birthday was a reminder of his legacy. Variety has reported that Warner Bros. is planning a Carl Sagan biopic that will tell his story and perhaps even inspire a new generation of viewers.

3 Reasons To Celebrate Carl Sagan's Birthday

In September 1995, as the National Endowment for the Humanities recounts, anthropologist Johan Reinhard and climbing partner Miguel Zé¡rate were high on the upper slopes of Peru's 20,702-foot high Mount Ampato, taking pictures of the volcanic eruption of a nearby peak. Zé¡rate spotted a cloth bundle and thought it might be a climber's lost backpack. Reinhard joked that it might be a climber — and it was ... or had been. Inside the bundle was what turned out to be the best-preserved Andean "ice mummy" yet discovered. A Mummy in the Mountains Upon examination, the ice mummy was found to be the body of a girl about 12 to 15 years old. She was believed to have been sacrificed to the mountain gods of the Inca civilization during the 15th century. The mummified girl, dubbed the Lady of Ampato, or simply Mummy Juanita, was in a startling state of preservation. Unlike Egyptian mummies, preserved by an elaborate embalming process, Andean ice mummies are preserved by the cold, dry environment. But while most are dessicated by the dry air, Mummy Juanita was simply frozen solid. She was so well preserved that investigators were even able to determine changes in her diet by examining her hair, as Ancient Origins reports. These changes showed that her diet became rich in meat and corn and suggested that she was chosen to be sacrificed some months before her death. Along with the fine textiles she was buried in, these changes indicate the elite status the Incas accorded to those chosen to be sacrificed to their gods. The high status of those sacrificed is also attested by the numerous gifts, such as statuettes, jars of food and even beer, that often accompany ice mummy burials. The young girl died of a blow to the head, with a CT scan revealing a "crack in the skull and a leftward displacement of the brain," according to the New York Times. A Royal Obligation Reinhard found two more mummy children on Mount Ampato, which aligns with Spanish accounts of children being sacrificed in pairs as "companion sacrifices" for important victims, which Mummy Juanita may have been. PBS reports that the Incas were in special awe of the high peaks of the Andes, which they saw as bringing them closer to the sun god, Inti. Moreover, the mountains were at once a source of life-giving water and, when they erupted, a source of disaster. Thus, the high peaks of the Andes were seen as an appropriate place for the sacrifice, known as a capacocha, translating to "royal obligation." Scientists believe that up to hundreds of ice mummy children remain buried among the high peaks of the Andes. In 1999, Reinhard discovered three more mummy children on Volcé¡n Llullaillaco, on the border between Argentina and Chile. Mummy Juanita now lies in repose in the Museo Santuarios Andinos in the city of Arequipa, Peru, not far from Mount Ampato. Peru's Andina news agency reports that, as of November 2020, Mummy Juanita, the Lady of Ampato, was officially listed as a cultural heritage of Peru.

Incan Ice Mummy: Envoy From an Ancient Civilization

Ancient Egyptians developed an elaborate mummification process that still influences modern embalming techniques. Mummies became a lasting symbol of a specific place and time in history. Many of us have looked in wonder at 2,000-year-old Egyptian mummies behind thick glass in a museum and seen the caricature of a body wrapped in strips of white cloth. But how do you really mummify a human body correctly? Embalm Like an Egyptian Ancient Egyptians developed a rigorous and specific process for mummification. The entire mummification process took 70 days, according to History.com. It was a blend of science and ceremony, as the body was preserved and believed to be prepared for the afterlife. Step 1: Prepare the Body The BBC reports that modern researchers used forensic techniques to identify the ingredients in the resin that ancient Egyptians used. The recipe included a plant-derived oil, such as sesame oil, a balsam-type of plant or root extract, a plant-based gum and a conifer tree resin, likely pine resin. These ingredients have chemical properties that give them antibacterial effects that prevent the body from decaying. A standout among the ancient Egyptian tools used for mummification is the brain hook — which is just as gory as it sounds. Embalmers used this tool, which resembled a crochet needle, to pull the corpse's brain through the nose. They would make an abdominal incision and remove the lungs, stomach, liver and intestines. The body's organs were placed in special containers called canopic jars. They intentionally left the heart in the body because they believed it was the source of a person's thoughts and overall being. Next, the body was rinsed with wine, which helped to kill bacteria. Step 2: Dry the Body The next step was essential — they thoroughly dried out the body. To remove all the moisture, the embalmers used a chemical called natron, which is a naturally-derived salt with excellent drying properties, according to Scientific American. They stuffed natron packets inside the body, covered it entirely in salt and left it to dry on an embalming table. Then, 40 days later, embalmers would find a blackened and shriveled body ready for the next phase of mummification. Step 3: Restore the Body The second half of the process involved restoring the shriveled body to make it appear more lifelike. After the body was completely dry, the embalmers massaged the skin to make it supple. They perfumed the body and stuffed padding under the skin to make it seem more fleshy and realistic. Then, embalmers gave the mummies a bit of a makeover, applying blush and other paints, as well as false eyes. Step 4: Wrap the Body Finally, they coated the corpse in warm resin and wrapped it in the fabric strips that have now become the staple of a classic Halloween costume. Priests carefully wrapped each body part in multiple layers of linen strips, often placing a mask of the person's face under the bandages. Each mummy was wrapped in 100 yards of linen strips. Step 5: Say Goodbye After the mummy was complete, priests performed a religious ceremony at the tomb. It involved a ritual called "opening of the mouth," where they touched parts of the mummy with a special tool to "open" parts of the body to enjoy the afterlife. For example, according to Scientific American, Egyptians believed that when a priest touched the tool to a mummy's mouth, the dead person would then be able to speak and eat in the afterlife. Lastly, they placed the mummy in its coffin and sealed the entrance to the burial chamber. Modern Mummification Techniques Today, mummification is rare, although there are some places where people still preserve dead bodies. Communist revolutionary leader Vladimir Lenin died in 1924, and his body was mummified using modern techniques. Nearly a century after his death, Lenin's body is still on display at a mausoleum in Moscow. Just like a mummy, all of Lenin's internal organs were removed, according to All Things Interesting. His body was embalmed after his death, and a team of dedicated experts called the "Lenin Lab" continue to maintain it with precise lighting, temperature and embalming fluid, and by injecting the body with a secret mixture of chemicals. The Lenin lab has used this technique to embalm the bodies of other world leaders, such as Vietnamese President Ho Chi Minh, North Korea's Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il, Bulgarian leader Georgi Dimitrov and former Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin. A religious organization in Utah called Summum continues to mummify bodies of people and their pets. According to their website, their updated mummification technique involves cleaning the body, treating the organs, then immersing the body in a preservation solution that's made of chemicals used in genetic engineering. The corpse soaks in the solution for a period of time and is then removed, cleaned and covered in a "lotion." Then, just like ancient mummies, it is wrapped in layers of gauze. Next, the embalmers apply a polyurethane membrane and then a layer of fiberglass and resin to seal the body. Lastly, they put the mummy in a metal sarcophagus and fill it with an amber resin. Ancient Egyptian pyramids inspire modern engineers, and their mummification process aligns with modern chemistry. Embalmers may have tweaked the specific chemicals and upgraded the ancient Egyptian tools used for mummification, but the general process remains the same: Remove the organs, dry out the body, and then apply a cocktail of chemicals to restore it to a more lifelike appearance. Ancient rituals and the latest scientific techniques agree — in order to preserve a body, you have to apply antibacterial solutions to prevent decay.

The Mummification Process in 5 Steps

Key Takeaways The Egyptian pyramids are the last remaining of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Archaeological evidence shows that the pyramids were built without sophisticated mechanical tools, with builders learning from each monument to refine techniques. The pyramids demonstrate the Egyptians' extraordinary skills in mathematics, astronomy, logistics and advanced engineering.The Egyptian pyramids, represented most famously by the pyramids at Giza, are perhaps the most enduring and iconic vestige of the ancient Egyptian civilization. How the pyramids were built, however, remains a source of intense speculation among historians, archaeologists and engineers.The scale and precision of the pyramids demonstrate the Egyptians' extraordinary skills in mathematics, astronomy, logistics and advanced engineering. Unfortunately, the Egyptians did not devote the same level of effort to documenting their planning and construction processes. Much of what we know about how the pyramids were built, therefore, comes from observations made and artifacts unearthed by archaeologists at Giza and other Egyptian pyramid sites.Lessons From HistoryTo understand how the pyramids were built is to understand the history of engineering in the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a period spanning 2575 to 2134 B.C.The three major pyramids at Giza were designed and built to serve as tombs, respectively, for Egyptian pharaohs Khufu, his son Khafre, and Khufu's grandson, Menkaure, between 2540-2460 BC, explains engineer Craig B. Smith in his book "How the Great Pyramid Was Built." These structures represent the pinnacle of Egyptian pyramid building, but their stature as engineering wonders is built on a foundation of lessons learned from the construction of earlier, less famous pyramids.Advanced EngineeringOne of the earliest Egyptian pyramids, for example, is the Step Pyramid begun by Pharaoh Djoser in 2620 B.C. at Saqqara. Its series of stepped, concentric platforms represented the first significant architectural departure from early Egyptian tombs, which featured flat, slightly raised platforms known as mastabas, according to Smith.Another major step forward in the history of engineering came with the pyramid at Meidum begun by Pharaoh Sneferu in 2570 B.C., Smith details. It was the first pyramid to incorporate corbelled ceilings in underground chambers, an approach that afforded elegant, arched ceilings. Unfortunately, this pyramid, like the Step Pyramid, achieved its sloping exterior shape with courses of inwardly leaning stones, an engineering approach that would prove untenable.A More Level ApproachThe Bent Pyramid, begun by Pharaoh Sneferu in Dahshur in 2565 B.C., added several critical chapters to the history of engineering, Smith recounts. Its site consisted of loose, sandy soil, a foundation that provided inadequate support for the heavy structure. Predictably, the pyramid began to sink as construction proceeded, a result of using inwardly leaning blocks on an unstable foundation. To reduce stress on the structure, the pyramid's architects and builders reduced the slope of its exterior sides by 10 degrees, which created a "bent" appearance for the upper two-thirds of the structure.Serendipitously, this structural resolution produced the most significant breakthrough in how the pyramids were built: New courses of blocks (for this and all future pyramids) would be laid horizontally to reduce stress on the pyramid's inner core. And the pyramids' smooth, angled sides would be achieved using horizontal courses of stone finished with angled faces.Rules to Build ByThe Red Pyramid, begun in 2560 B.C. by Pharaoh Sneferu, marked the zenith of engineering lessons learned. It would serve as a prototype for the Great Pyramid, the first pyramid at Giza. It also codified the following lessons for pyramid building, as laid out by Smith: Build the pyramid on solid rock to ensure adequate support for its structure. Use precise measurements (square, plumb) to maintain the pyramid's shape. Place the burial chamber within the pyramid, not in the ground under the pyramid. Place masonry courses horizontally to better distribute the loads. Use large blocks on the lowest levels to create an accurate and stable base. Use smaller blocks on higher levels as they will be easier to place. Use corbelled ceilings to create spacious, dramatic rooms, while providing the structural strength required. Select a pyramid angle that minimizes labor and maximizes height. Finish the pyramid with fine white limestone to make it visible from great distances.Precision ThinkingThe most remarkable aspect of the Egyptians' success building pyramids is the absence of any sophisticated mechanical tools. They had no wheels or pulleys for moving or lifting loads, and no iron tools. Instead, they relied on copper chisels and drills, rudimentary copper saws and smooth, round balls of dolerite, a hard stone, to cut limestone, according to Smith.But what the Egyptians lacked in tools, they made up for with science and engineering precision.Smith explains that they developed and used the cubit rod to measure and lay out the dimensions of the pyramid; a square level to level horizontal surfaces, and a 3:4:5 framing square to create precision 90-degree angles.And the work paid off. The pyramids at Giza are oriented nearly precisely north and south. And the southeast corners of the pyramids are aligned on a diagonal that runs almost exactly 43 degrees east of true north, despite the fact that the compass had not yet been invented, according to Smith.Tools of the TradeEvidence uncovered by archaeologists such as Mark Lehner, director and president of Ancient Egypt Research Associates, suggests that most of the stone used in the pyramids came from quarries close to Giza, in his book "The Complete Pyramids." His findings also indicate that the white, homogeneous limestone used to provide the pyramids' finished outer layer was brought to Giza by boat from quarries east of the Nile, and that granite, the other major type of non-local stone, was brought from Aswan.The Egyptians cut limestone from the quarries by first chiseling out a slot along three sides of a block, drilling holes along the bottom edge, then using levers inserted in these holes to break the block loose from the quarry wall, Smith notes.Blocks of stone could be "tumbled" short distances using wooden sticks like levers. More often, the blocks were levered onto wooden sledges and hauled by teams of labors across "roads" fashioned in beds of limestone chips and mortar interlaced with wooden beams. Wet, alluvial mud or wooden "rollers" placed under the sledge runners likely allowed laborers to move the sledges more easily, according to Lehner.Archaeologists also believe that once the stones were on site, the Egyptians used inclined ramps to move them up to higher levels of the pyramid. A key debate, however, focuses on the configuration of these ramps: were they straight-on, perpendicular, spiral or perhaps zig-zag ramps built on the pyramid or just leaning against it? Whatever their design, these ramps had to bring stones to the right level while allowing pyramid builders to verify, visually, that the structure was maintaining its desired shape, Lehner explains.A National LegacyThe Egyptian pyramids, one of the last remaining Seven Wonders of the World, remain a fascinating and extraordinary chapter in the history of engineering. They are a testament to human organizational skills, the extraordinary vision of the ancient Egyptians and the sheer determination of a civilization to succeed.Some naysayers and historians have suggested that projects the size of the Egyptian pyramids could only have been executed by aliens. Archaeologists, like Lehner, however, are confident that these remarkable structures are the result of human hands performing work in small increments repeated innumerable times.Continue the development of leading edge engineering solutions with Northrop Grumman; check out our Engineering Careers page and join us in making something incredible.

How the Egyptian Pyramids Were Built Inspires Engineering Historians

Nearly 10,000 years ago, a young woman died in a cave in what is now Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. The circumstances of her death remain an unsolved mystery, but scientists have a few leads. A research team led by professor Wolfgang Stinnesbeck of Heidelberg University analyzed the ancient skeleton and reported in PLOS ONE on the multiple injuries and diseases the woman sustained in her lifetime, and how her distinctively shaped skull may offer clues to the geographical origin of the First Americans. A Glimpse Into the Past  In 2016, divers discovered the ancient skeleton, 30% complete, while exploring the Chan Hol cave near Tulum. The cave is just one of thousands of so-called cenoté©s that make up the porous bedrock of the peninsula. First Americans used the caves for at least 1,200 years, long before they were flooded. According to EurekAlert!, divers have found bones in the caves over the years from at least nine other people, all of whom lived between 10,000 and 13,000 years ago. These dates challenge a long-held hypothesis that humans came to the North American continent about 12,000 years ago by migrating across a strip of land that connected what is now modern-day Russia to Alaska, Stinnesbeck says in an earlier study in PLOS ONE. At that time, sea levels were lower, exposing more land. But various scientific teams have uncovered archaeological evidence from sites in North and South America that suggest people must have arrived in North America as early as 22,000 years ago, Stinnesbeck and his team say. Their most recent finding in Mexico, of the ancient skeleton they named Chan Hol 3, supports that case. "The early settlement history of America thus seems to be more complex and, moreover, to have occurred at an earlier time than previously assumed," Stinnesbeck said in the press release. Secrets of the Skull Analysis of Chan Hol 3 shows she stood about 5'5" tall and was about 30 years old when she died. When the researchers measured her skull and analyzed it along with her teeth, they found some remarkable clues about how she lived and perhaps how she died. For starters, she had lost several of her teeth and had an abscess that infected her jawbone, likely causing severe pain. Several of her remaining teeth had cavities or plaque. Three other skulls found in the Tulum caves had teeth with similar dental problems, which indicates that their diets were possibly rich in sugar, such as fruits and starchy roots. They may have also indulged on honey made by stingless bees common in Yucatan. Measurements showed that Chan Hol 3's skull was neither very broad nor very narrow, and she had broad cheekbones and a flat forehead. When scientists compared her skull to 452 skulls from across North, Central, and South America as well as skulls found in the Tulum caves, they found that Chan Hol 3's skull was similar to the three Tulum skulls. But it differed from the others, which are long, narrow and show worn teeth without cavities, suggesting that they ate harder, less sugary foods. The research team says that these and other structural, or morphological, patterns suggest two distinctly different human groups living separately in Mexico during this time. "The two groups must have been very different in aspect and culture. While the groups from central Mexico were tall, good hunters, with elaborate stone tools, the Yucaté¡n people were small and delicate, and to date, not a single stone tool was found," Stinnesbeck told Live Science. According to EurekAlert!, the scientists say this suggests that "more than one group of people reached the American continent first, or that there was enough time for a small group of early settlers who lived isolated on the Yucaté¡n peninsula to develop a different skull morphology." Pits and Perils Chan Hol 3 lived a hard, painful life. She had two herniated discs and bone degeneration consistent with arthritis. Her skull had three distinct injuries, indicating she'd been hit over the head — twice to the back of the skull and once to the side. Although there is no way to be certain, says Stinnesbeck, it's possible these blows caused her death. "There are no signs of healing of these wounds, but it is still difficult to say whether she died from these wounds or survived the blows [for] some time," he told Live Science. In nearby cave systems, other ancient skeletons have been found laid to rest undisturbed in deep parts of the cave. Carrying the bodies to those remote locations in dark, labyrinthine passages, perhaps without the aid of fire would have been a strenuous and dangerous task, says Stinnesbeck. "For Chan Hol 3, we do not have this evidence and the traumas rather point towards a different interpretation, i.e. the woman might have been killed there," he told Newsweek. Dents and pits in her skull hint at a possible a bacterial disease related to syphilis, called Treponema peritonitis. If that was the case, "she would have had an inflamed area where the infection was that would have been very sore to the touch, with possible breaks in the skin," study co-researcher Samuel Rennie, a biological and forensic anthropologist, told Live Science. Another theory is that she suffered from an inflammation in the connective tissue that surrounds the bone. Or the pits could be the result of erosion to the skull bones in the cave environment. The researchers would like to conduct further analysis using a CT (computed tomography) scanner, which will help them diagnose these strange lesions and traumas, Rennie told Live Science. Dating Chan Hol 3's skeleton proved somewhat challenging, which could call some of these findings into question. Because the bones had been submerged in water for thousands of years, the soft tissue proteins, namely collagen, used to do conventional radiocarbon analysis had degraded and washed away. The scientists had used a different technique, called the uranium-thorium method, to analyze minerals in the woman's finger bones that had dripped down from stalagmites. It's not considered the gold standard, but it was the best the scientists could do and the date was in line with other skeletons, says Live Science. One thing is for sure. As more researchers plumb the watery depths of Mexican cenoté©s and additional evidence comes to light about First Americans, Chan Hol 3's death will not have been in vain.

Ancient Skeleton Discovery Raises Questions About First Americans

Just like the ever-expanding universe, women in space are stretching boundaries. They are making scientific discoveries and inspiring future generations to explore the unknown. Let's take a closer look at some of NASA's most famous female astronauts and their achievements.1. Sally RideA physicist, educator and, famously, the first American woman in space, Sally Ride is an icon. In June 1983, she rode the Challenger shuttle for Mission STS-7. She worked on a robotic arm that delivered satellites to space. Back on Earth, Ride pursued efforts to include more girls in math and science and ushered in the next generation of women in space.2. Kathryn SullivanKathryn Sullivan completed the first spacewalk by an American woman in 1984. Nearly 40 years ago, the Challenger carried Sullivan, an Earth scientist, into space for NASA's STS-41G mission. With Sally Ride as her crewmate, the duo made history, as it was the first time a space crew included two women.3. Mae JemisonMae Jemison was the first African American woman in space. In 1992, she rode Endeavor for the STS-47 mission Spacelab-J, a cooperative mission between the United States and Japan. The eight-day flight involved microgravity investigations in materials and life sciences.In the years since, she has taught at universities, continued a medical career and advocated for diversity and inclusion in STEM fields. Jemison recently told CBS News, "We need to take advantage of the full range of talent."4. Shannon LucidShannon Lucid was the first American woman to live in space and complete a long-duration mission. She was also the first woman to receive the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. In March 1996, she rode the shuttle Atlantis to the Russian Space Station Mir, joining the mission STS-76. Her four-and-a-half-month stay on the space station initiated a continuous U.S. presence in space for the next two years.She later returned to the space station and contributed to life sciences and microgravity research. She participated in five orbiter missions, spent more than 223 days in flight and spent more than three decades at NASA.5. Eileen CollinsEileen Collins is famous for setting many records during her illustrious career. In 1995, she was the first woman pilot of a space shuttle mission (STS-63). Two years later, she was the first woman shuttle pilot to dock with a space station (STS-84 at Mir).Collins was also the first female shuttle commander in 1999, as part of the STS-93 mission. She commanded a historic shuttle mission to the International Space Station in 2005 — the STS-114 mission was the first Return to Flight mission after the tragic loss of Columbia in 2003.6. Peggy WhitsonPeggy Whitson has spent more time in space than any other American or any other woman, according to Space.com. She was the first woman to command the space station twice and the first woman and non-military head of NASA's astronaut office. Even after she retired from NASA in 2018, Whitson continued to break barriers as she became the first woman to command a private space mission (Axiom Space).7. Ellen OchoaEllen Ochoa became the first Hispanic woman in space in 1993. She was a mission specialist aboard the STS-56 flight of Discovery, a nine-day mission that collected data about how the sun's energy affects the ozone layer.Her career included four missions, during which she served as flight engineer, robotic arm operator and the lead for science experiments. Ochoa spent nearly 1,000 hours in space, and her accomplishments continue on the ground. She was the first Latina to hold the prestigious position of director of the Johnson Space Center.8. Christina KochChristina Koch completed the longest single mission by a woman. On the 59th expedition to the International Space Station, Koch was in space for 328 days, starting in 2019 and ending in 2020. Koch and the Expedition-59 crew observed bioengineered devices, tested free-flying robotic assistants and set up external science facilities.9. Jessica MeirJessica Meir is a biologist who studies animals in extreme environments ranging from the ocean to outer space. In 2020, Meir and Koch completed the first all-female spacewalk. Her time on the International Space Station represents the most prolonged continuous female presence aboard the space station. NASA reports that she has spent 205 days in space, 3,280 orbits of Earth and a trip of 86.9 million miles.All these famous female astronauts contributed to scientific discoveries and fundamental exploration. They were the first women in space but certainly not the last. Their legacies continue to inspire future space explorers. And NASA aims to land the first woman and person of color on the moon on the upcoming Artemis missions.Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are, too. Learn more about our people and life at Northrop Grumman, or check out our career opportunities to see how you can be a part of defining possible.

9 Notable Women in Space

As CNN recently reported, a team of scientists led by George Church of Harvard Medical School has received $15 million in funding for a project to "bring back" the extinct woolly mammoth. This enormous shaggy cousin of the elephant roamed the Ice Age world but died out thousands of years ago. This "de-extinction" project would use genetic manipulation technology to splice together thousands of woolly mammoth genes, preserved by the arctic cold, combining them with genes of Asian elephants to create a hybrid species with woolly-mammoth characteristics.
 
Experts suggest that woolly mammoth resurrection may help reduce the rate of carbon release from arctic soil, helping to control global warming thanks to their grazing activity, such as trampling grass as these magnificent giants are wont to do. But how realistic is this plan, and will it come to fruition in our lifetime? Let's find out.
 
Welcome to Pleistocene Park
 
The idea of de-extinction is not a new one — it received the Hollywood treatment in Jurassic Park, for example. In that light, it's easy to imagine the most lurid ways that woolly mammoth resurrection might go wrong, such as a rampaging neo-mammoth attacking a tourist bus. But are there more subtle complications we need to be concerned about?
 
Strictly speaking, a woolly mammoth resurrection isn't possible currently. As CNN noted, the last woolly mammoths died out nearly 4,000 years ago. While arctic conditions preserved large amounts of their genetic material, what we have is far too degraded to allow direct cloning of a mammoth. Instead, the preserved genetic material would be spliced together with Asian elephant genes to produce a hybridized animal, according to NPR.
 
Creating a Hybrid Animal
 
This hybrid — referred to as a "mammophant" — would look and behave like the woolly mammoth; however, it will be something entirely new, and with that, comes caution. Some of the differences between the original woolly mammoths and mammophants would be deliberate: The new specimens would lack tusks to minimize the risk of poachers killing them for ivory.
 
Other critics note that there is no evidence that herds of mammophants would have any real impact on arctic ecosystems and climate change. Indeed, mammoths may have gone extinct in the first place because climate change at the end of the Ice Age eliminated the habitat and ecosystems that they relied on to survive. Mammophants might immediately become an endangered species in a world that now lacks the environments in which the woolly mammoths once thrived.
 
The Genetic Challenges Ahead
 
As Science journal reports, genetic manipulation experiments with a far less spectacular extinct mammal suggest that we're still a long way from being able to achieve a woolly mammoth resurrection: The Christmas Island rat went extinct around 1908, and well-preserved genetic material was available, but even after repeated sequencing using the closely related Norway rat as a reference, researchers found that some 5% of the Christmas Island rat's genome was still missing.
 
The only real way to know a gene's "expression" — how it shapes an animal's body or behavior — is to see it in action. Many layers of uncertainty lie between us and the reality that woolly mammoths once embodied. In short, a woolly mammoth resurrection is a difficult and uncertain project at best. It raises complex practical and ethical issues, and it may not even be possible.
That said, observing a woolly mammoth — or even a mammophant — living in the wild would certainly be awesome.
 
Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Learn more about our people and life at Northrop Grumman, or check out our career opportunities to see how you can be a part of defining possible.
 

Is a Woolly Mammoth Resurrection Possible With Genetic Engineering?

If there's a single certainty in science, it's that debate never stops. Scientists of all stripes have specific opinions of what they think happened, when it happened and how it happened, and they're nothing if not passionate — at least until the evidence comes in.
This is where (until recently) research found itself with a tricky question: How did warm-blooded animals evolve? While we've been around for a while, exactly how long we've been strutting our hot stuff has been up for debate. Now, thanks to some clever thinking on the part of researchers, it's possible to pinpoint the preponderance of endotherms on our planet within a million years or so.
Spoiler alert: It's about 20 million years later than previously thought.
A Tale of Two Temperatures
When it comes to staying comfortable, animals fall into two broad categories: endotherms and ectotherms.

    Endotherms, also known as warm-blooded animals, include mammals and birds. As noted by the Ecology Center, endothermic animals use internal biological structures and processes to regulate their body heat and keep it consistent, or in a state of homeostasis. This allows endotherms to survive in a variety of climates since their internal body temperature remains the same. The caveat is the proportional need for energy — maintaining consistent body temperature requires a substantial amount of food as climates become more extreme.
    Ectotherms, or cold-blooded animals, take on the temperature of their environment. Reptiles and insects are good examples — lizards may use hot rocks in the sun to increase their temperature, while colonies of termites or bees may rely on the proximity of other insects to create a consistent climate. As a result, ectotherms are typically built to survive in narrow climate bands. Moving outside their desired temperature range may be possible but is rarely preferable.

It's worth noting that there are exceptions to the rule. For example, ectotherms such as bumblebees may temporarily increase their internal body temperature by shivering their flight muscles, while endotherms like bears may reduce their temperature for a limited period of time during hibernation to cut the energy costs associated with core temperature regulation.
The Ears Have It
How did warm-blooded animals evolve? The answer was nearby the whole time: as noted by ScienceDaily, it's all about tubes — three, tiny fluid-flowing tubes in animals' inner ears. While these tubular travel trails have long been used to help understand the locomotive behaviors of fossil organisms, researchers realized that they could play another role: pinpointing the uptake of endotherms.
According to a paper published by Nature, ear canal fluid plays an essential part in balance. This fluid is why you can maintain your balance on a swaying ship or an uneven surface. When your body changes position, your ear fluid remains steady.
Both endotherms and ectotherms use ear fluid to find balance. While cold-blooded animals have more vicious fluid, the fluid of their warm-blooded counterparts is runnier. This difference set the stage for discovery. Given the high viscosity of ectotherms' inner ear fluid, their ear canals were larger to accommodate the proper flow. The higher temperature and lower viscosity of endotherms fluid, meanwhile, meant smaller ear tubes were sufficient.
By measuring the sizes of both living and fossilized ear canals, researchers were able to reliably determine when the first ectotherms appeared on Earth.
Put It in Park(a)
After comparing the ear canals of 243 living and 64 extinct species, scientists had their answers: ectotherms arrived approximately 233 million years ago, or 20 million years later than previously thought. What's more, this move to homeostatic temperature regulation occurred remarkably fast from an evolutionary perspective. Unlike previous postulations that endothermy appeared slowly over tens of millions of years, new data suggests it took less than a million years for endothermy to make the move from environmental outlier to ubiquitous characteristic.
When considered with other evolutionary changes from around that same time period, including the development of fur, whiskers and specialized backbones, the shift to internal heat generation makes sense, since fur and whiskers would help trap heat and regulate overall temperature. The scope of these changes may have been part of a larger adaption driven by the Late Cenozoic Ice Age, or Antarctic Glaciation, which began 33.9 million years ago and remains ongoing.
Here Come the Hot Steppers
The era of the endotherms has finally been identified. While it's later than expected, it also shows a rapid uptake of internal temperature techniques that helped humankind adapt to the changing conditions of a hot-and-cold world.
 
Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Learn more about life at Northrop Grumman, and check out our career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.
 

Hot Stuff: When and How Did Warm-Blooded Animals Evolve?

Politics, pressures and profits aside, the Olympics remain a source of inspiration for athletes and fans alike. From the inception of the modern games in 1896, to the offset of the Summer and Winter Games in 1992, the history of the Olympics is fraught with change, struggle and ultimately evolution. As the Winter Games have grown, so has the sports technology needed to improve athlete performance, enhance audience experience and answer the ultimate question every two years: Who is the best in the world?Timing TechTiming is everything, especially at the Olympics. The games have come a long way from sideline judges holding analog stopwatches. Official timekeeper Omega is rolling out new technologies at Pyeongchang, according to SportTechie, to help viewers at home better understand how close high-level competitors are when it comes to timing and technique. For example, the company's STROMOTION sports technology will capture ski jump athletes' performances frame-by-frame, then overlay previous skiers' jumps to compare technique.Podium-Worthy ProstheticsParalympians have also benefited from the evolution of sports technology. As noted by CNN, the first athlete-focused prosthetics were heavy, clumsy and painful to wear, but new iterations, such as Ottobock's Genium X3, include micro-processors that automatically adjust to users' stride patterns, while companies like Northrop Grumman are developing custom-fit sockets for prosthetics that could help improve overall comfort.Clothing ConsiderationsOlympic athletes' clothing is a highlight of the games. Consider the significant reaction garnered by Team USA's reveal of fringed leather gloves for their entrance into Pyeongchang this year. But according to Scientific American, athlete outwear designer Ralph Lauren is also leveraging technology to help mitigate extremely cold temperatures in South Korea. Using strips of heat-conducting metallic ink composed of silver and carbon, self-warming jackets help American athletes stave off hypothermia during the opening and closing ceremonies.Digging Into DataIn a world dominated by big data, athletes can't afford to ignore critical information that could improve their overall performance. The challenge is finding effective ways to capture and analyze this data. Consider the Winter Olympic sport of curling, which sees both teams sliding granite rocks down a sheet of ice and "sweeping" that ice correctly to maximize speed and rock placement. Traditionally, great curlers relied on technique but lacked ways to measure the efficacy of their sweeping and brushing. Enter the SmartBroom. As noted by the New York Times, each broom contains four sensors that relay stroke force and rate to help analyze performance. This Canadian invention helped both the men's and women's teams sweep gold at Sochi and is now used by professional curlers worldwide.Virtual RealitySeeing is believing, but when it comes to the Olympics, it's easy to miss critical shots or key jumps because the action simply happens too fast. But technology companies are upping the ante at Pyeongchang by streaming much of the games in virtual reality, allowing viewers to see what they want, when they want and from any angle. According to Business Insider, NBC will air more than 50 hours of live VR coverage during the games. South Korean telecommunication companies are also using the Olympics as a test run for lightning-fast 5G networks that could reasonably support real-time VR experiences, said Business Times.The U.S. Olympic team is also using VR to shore up training efforts since they've had precious little time to practice on South Korean courses. Coaching staff hope that virtual reality training simulators will help give American athletes the edge when their moment in the spotlight arrives, said Fast Company.Wearable WinnersAthlete-enabling wearable sports technology is also in development. Researchers at the University of British Columbia have recently developed a line of smart tech that measures the local metabolism of an athlete's muscles using near-infrared spectroscopy. This lets coaches determine how fast athletes are burning energy and provides critical data for athletes recovering after injuries.The history of the Olympics has established the games as a worldwide phenomenon that drives not only evolution in athlete performance but the creation of new technologies to better understand and appreciate the incredible talent on display. With the rise of VR, smart devices and big data, Pyeongchang 2018 promises to be a tour de force.

The History of the Olympics and Sports Technology: Raising the Bar

In the classic film "Raiders of the Lost Ark," archaeologist Indiana Jones looks into an underground Egyptian tomb and, after observing dozens of reptiles slithering on the ground, wryly says, "Snakes. Why did it have to be snakes?" When anthropologist Robert Goodby led an archeological excavation along the banks of the Connecticut River in New Hampshire, he was thrilled to find snakes. To be clear, these were the bones of snakes, dating from 600 to possibly as far back as 6,000 years ago. Their presence, Goodby believes, offers clues about how snakes played a role in ancient Native American culture. The dig found nothing else to directly explain why the bones were found in an area not known for venomous snakes. For that matter, New Hampshire itself isn't crawling with them. But the remains could serve as a connection to other archeological records that show snakes were eaten as nourishment and part of a spiritual ritual. "Whether they were eaten for food like a burger or eaten like a wafer at communion, that's impossible to tell from the archeological record," Goodby said. "But what we know is these animals had sacred importance. We can think about how that played out." A Dig Before the Land Vanished The excavation happened over the summers of 2004 and 2005; Goodby publicized his research only this year, in an issue of the Archaeology of Eastern North America. "I had to do a little bit of catching up," he recently joked about the time lag. He noted that the gap between the dig and publication is typical of archeologists who quickly get consumed by other work and vow to get back to cataloging and writing about their discoveries. Goodby, who is an anthropology professor at Franklin Pierce University in Rindge, N.H., learned about the spot from Art Whipple, a friend who was an "avocational archeologist and a real outdoorsman" and who had found dozens of other Native American sites in the state. The strip of land for this dig — along the banks of the Connecticut River and in the shadow of Wantastiquet Mountain, in Hinsdale, a town in southwestern New Hampshire — was being consumed by water erosion accelerated by a nearby dam. The area had long stood out for archeological sites that had uncovered the lives of the Abenaki, a Native American tribe and First Nations group from Canada who belonged to the larger Algonquian tribe of northeastern North America. Goodby, agreeing with Whipple that the remaining sliver of land would soon slide into the river, gathered a group of his students along with those who belonged to the State Conservation and Rescue Archaeology Program (SCRAP). Over the two summers, they uncovered pottery, spear heads and stone tools typically found in Abenaki sites in the area. They also came across burnt skeletal remains of deer and turtle, an unsurprising find, as well as the charred tiny vertebrae of an unidentified species. Testing by a herpetologist and zoologist identified the remains as those belonging to snakes: a water snake, a garter snake, a few black rat snakes, one northern copperhead and 20 timber rattlesnakes. Much Is Unknown, but Meanings Are There Many of the snake bones ranged in age from about 600 to 700 years, but the oldest remains could be as old 6,000 years, tying them to the ancestors of the Abenaki, Goodby said. The bones were burned — a reason why they remained preserved but also an obstacle in revealing why they were cooked. "It doesn't answer if they were ordinary food or a special offering," he said. But an archeological dig in neighboring Vermont in the 1970s connects dots, Goodby said. In a 3,000-year-old cemetery, the remains of a middle-aged man were well preserved. He was buried with a leather bag. "Inside, there were complete skeletons of a timber rattlesnake and a rattlesnake, along with the bones of mammals. The archeologist who discovered that believed it was a medicine bag." Considered in that context, it would be reasonable to posit that the venomous snakes that Goodby's team found were used in some sort of spiritual ritual. Goodby holds that as a possibility, just as much as he suggests the snakes could have been simply something to eat. That perspective is in line with the overall attitude about archaeology: There is usually more than one story to consider with any relic. "Were they sacred?" he questioned of the rattlesnakes. "It's one of those things, if in archaeolog, you limit yourself to only what you can prove scientifically, you get interesting things, but it's a one-dimensional view. When you also look at these things from a spiritual perspective, you don't get much of a physical sense of that, but you get an idea of (the Native American) worldview. These things were part of their lives, even if we can't prove what they did." Goodby added, "It's not as if we're completely lost. If you look at native cultures, rattlesnakes were sacred animals. It's widespread. That helps you interpret things. You know they were used by Native Americans. In the historical period and modern period, they believed the snakes were sacred. Archeologists have not done enough with oral traditions. Combined with archeological data, those traditions can help us interpret the role of the rattlesnakes in Native American culture."

Clues to Native American Culture Possibly Found in Rattlesnake Bones

 In the first six months after its attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Japanese navy swept the Pacific and Indian Oceans from Hawaii to Ceylon. It sank dozens of American, British and other Allied ships, often in one-sided victories. The goal was to clear such a vast region of sea around Japan that no counterattack would be practical, forcing the U.S. and other Allies to accept domination of the western Pacific and Southeast Asia. But a Japanese plan to round out its successes led instead to a decisive defeat of the Japanese navy at the Battle of Midway. Four of the six Japanese aircraft carriers that had struck at Pearl Harbor went to the bottom of the ocean, compared with just one American carrier lost. The initiative in the Pacific War shifted relentlessly toward U.S. and Allied forces. A Sea Battle — and an Information Battle Today, as recounted by Alan Taylor in Atlantic magazine, Midway is most remembered as the first great, full-scale clash between fleets of aircraft carriers. Indeed, it was only the second battle between carriers — the first was just a month earlier, the Battle of the Coral Sea, in which the U.S. Navy fought a Japanese task force to a draw. But even before the first airstrikes were launched, as Mark Munson reports at warontherocks.com, the Battle of Midway also demonstrated the decisive role of the information battlefield in modern warfare. The Japanese high command had devised a complex plan intended to catch the Americans by surprise and complete the elimination of U.S. naval strength that had begun at Pearl Harbor. Instead, thanks to American codebreakers and information analysts, it was the Japanese navy that was taken by surprise and defeated. Midway Island, some 1,500 miles west of Hawaii, was the last outpost west of Hawaii that was still in U.S. hands — and the first vital link in the chain of bases that the U.S. would need to take the war to Japan. A Japanese landing there would thus deliver a crippling blow — and perhaps pave the way for an invasion of Hawaii itself. As part of the operation, Japan's Admiral Yamamoto and his colleagues dispatched coordinated forces across thousands of miles of the Pacific, extending as far as Alaska. These forces were intended to leave American commanders uncertain of what objectives the Japanese would strike at. What Admiral Yamamoto did not know was that the Americans had partially broken the Japanese top secret naval code.Seeking the Identify of "AF" The information provided by the code breakers was tantalizing but not complete. Japanese communications revealed that an attack was intended on a place code-named "AF." American analysts suspected that AF was Midway, but how could they be sure? To find out, the U.S. base on Midway was secretly ordered to broadcast a message "in the clear" (uncoded) saying that it was running low on drinking water. The Japanese intercepted the message — as they were intended to — and were soon reporting that "AF" was short of water. For the Japanese, it was a fatal mistake. They had been tricked into revealing their objective, while they remained in the dark about American moves in response. Japanese planners also mistakenly thought that the carrier USS Yorktown had been sunk in the Battle of the Coral Sea. In fact, it only had been damaged, and was already back in service. Thus, the Japanese commanders thought that their four aircraft carriers were opposed by only two American carriers, when in fact they faced three, plus American aircraft on Midway itself. The coming battle would be more even than they realized — while their own complex plan left Japanese forces so spread out that they could not all support each other.Fire From the Sky, Fire on the Sea The battle itself began on June 3, 1942, when an American reconnaissance plane spotted part of the Japanese fleet. An airstrike by B-17s based on Midway had no effect. The next day, June 4, Japanese aircraft hit Midway, where they did considerable damage, but also got a tough reception from defending Grumman F4F Wildcats. But by that time, as Taylor notes, U.S. counterstrikes had already been launched toward the Japanese fleet. The American strikes, launched at extreme range, were not perfectly coordinated. The first waves of torpedo bombers, coming in low to launch their torpedoes, were pounded by antiaircraft fire and defending Japanese Zero fighters, and suffered heavy losses while scoring no hits. (Defective American torpedoes contributed to the failure.) But when American dive bombers appeared a few minutes later, approaching at high altitude, the Zero fighters were caught in the wrong position, too low to engage the new attackers. In addition, the Japanese carrier flight decks were crowded with planes being armed and fueled for follow-up strikes. Thus, the American dive bombers caught the Japanese carriers in the worst possible situation, their decks littered with bombs and gasoline hoses. Within minutes, three Japanese carriers were aflame from stem to stern. Later in the day a fourth suffered the same fate. All would sink or be scuttled by the next day. As all this was unfolding, Japanese airstrikes pounded the USS Yorktown, which would eventually sink on June 7. By then, the Japanese task force was retreating, crippled by the loss of its carriers. The Battle of Midway was over, but the Japanese navy would never fully recover from its losses — not only the four carriers, but trained pilots and crews as well. Modern aircraft carriers do not carry either torpedo bombers or dive bombers, which have been superseded by more capable strike aircraft. Thus, the most enduring lesson of Midway is that controlling the information battlefield is the key to victory. The modern expression for this information battlefield is C4ISR, standing for Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance. While computers did not yet exist in 1942, improvements in technology have only increased the power of information as the most decisive weapon of all.

The Battle of Midway: A Victory of Information

Scientists may have just discovered the earliest animal with opposed thumbs in a seemingly unlikely candidate: the pterosaur. Pterosaurs were flying reptiles that lived in the age of dinosaurs. Now, a Current Biology study reports that a newly discovered species of this animal appears to have had opposed thumbs — an adaptation that might have allowed this winged wonder to grasp tree branches like a monkey. The species has been nicknamed "Monkeydactyl," but its scientific name is Kunpengopterus antipollicatus, which means "opposite thumb" in ancient Greek. As the study reports, this newly discovered species was found in China in a fossil bed rich with biodiversity from a subtropical Jurassic forest from 160 million years ago. Masters of the Air Pterosaurs and dinosaurs lived during the Mesozoic era (251 million to 66 million years ago), which includes the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous time periods. Pterosaurs were the first known vertebrates to be capable of powered flight, which they used to dominate the air and hunt for prey in spectacular fashion. As Live Science explains, about 130 pterosaur species have been identified from around the world, even though their hollow bones didn't fossilize well. Among the largest pterosaurs was Quetzalcoatlus, which stood as tall as a giraffe, had a wingspan of 35 feet and weighed 500 pounds. The smallest pterosaurs were the size of a sparrow. Thumbs for Grasping "Monkeydactyl" had a wingspan of approximately 85 centimeters, according to the Current Biology report. The evidence for its opposed thumbs comes from a single fossil encased in rock, which was subjected to microcomputed tomography (microCT) to generate an accurate 3D image of the entire fossil. Both thumbs are facing the other fingers, similar to the position of a human hand when grasping a tree branch. Humans have "opposable" thumbs that are also capable of facing the same direction as the other fingers, such as when a hand is flat on the ground. In contrast, the Current Biology authors believe that Monkeydactyl's thumbs were "permanently opposed in a natural position." This is similar to the permanently opposed big toe that bald eagles use to catch prey and perch on branches. Digits and Flight Pterosaurs, dinosaurs, birds and humans all belong to an ancient class of animals known as tetrapods, which started with four limbs and five digits on each limb. As a paper published in Biological Reviews describes, some tetrapods increased their dexterity and ability to navigate in trees by developing opposable thumbs (e.g. primates, koalas, tree frogs, chameleons) and sometimes opposable toes (e.g. birds, chimpanzees, koalas, tree frogs). As an article in the Journal of Evolutionary Biology explains, pterosaurs, birds and bats are the only tetrapods known to have evolved flapping flight. Two of these groups have usable thumbs. In birds, the finger bones have become so highly modified to support the wings that they are almost unrecognizable as fingers. (Think of trying to find the finger bones in a cooked chicken wing.) Grasping ability in birds has been relegated to the feet and beak. In bats, the bones in their second, third, fourth and fifth fingers have become extremely elongated to support the membranous wing. However, the thumb remains free and functions as a grasping claw. In pterosaurs, the fifth finger has been lost, while the fourth finger massively expanded to support the membranous wing. The first three fingers formed a grasping claw. In Monkeydactyl, the thumb appears to have become opposed, which is often associated with living in trees. Life in Trees The ability to grasp narrow branches can help animals navigate complex habitats and reach fruits, insects and other food sources. The tooth structure of Monkeydactyl suggests that it may have eaten insects, as the Current Biology authors note. The researchers who discovered Monkeydactyl compared its features with those of 25 other pterosaurs and 156 other species, including many that live primarily in trees. They found that Monkeydactyl was well suited to life in the trees — more so than two closely related pterosaur species that lived in the same environment around the same time. This suggests that these closely related pterosaurs may have engaged in niche partitioning, meaning that they ate different foods and used different resources to minimize competition. Pterosaurs died out 66 million years ago. Nonetheless, it is fascinating to learn about their adaptations and strategies for success, since variations of their opposed digits are being used by animals today. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery in science, technology and engineering.

A Pterosaur That Flew in the Age of Dinosaurs Had Opposed Thumbs

On May 20th, 2019, the General Conference on Weights and Measures tossed the old definition of a kilogram and replaced it with a brand-new measurement. But why the change? What's the benefit? How is the new standard calculated? And what's the impact at scale? Here's why the new kilogram was worth the weight. For All Time, For All People America remains one of the few global holdouts still using the Imperial System (feet, pounds, miles per hour) for measurements of distance, weight and speed. Most of the world uses the metric system, also called the International System of Units (SI), which emerged after the French tossed the monarchy and decided the most rebellious thing they could do was codify measurements worldwide — and to be fair, they weren't wrong. As noted by Vox, the newly-formed Bureau of Weights and Measures created a system "for all times, for all people" and decided that the best way to get everyone on board was to link units of measurement with physical representations:   The Meter — One ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the equator. A metal bar was crafted to exactly match this length for easy comparison.  The Gram — Linked to the mass of 1 cubic centimeter of water at four degrees Celsius.  The Kilogram — Weighing in at 1,000 grams, the kilogram was embodied by the International Prototype Kilogram (also called Big K), which is a piece of platinum-iridium alloy originally created in 1889 and stored in Sé¨vres, France. Copies exist across the globe, including seven at the National Institutes of Standards and Technology (NIST), to help standardize weights.  Let's (Not) Get Physical Weighing apples at the grocery store? Measuring your kids' height on the wall? Even in the U.S., you're using rulers and scales defined by the metric system. Every piece of measuring equipment can trace its accuracy back to the meter sticks and platinum pucks stored around the world. The problem: Physical constants aren't constant. The Earth isn't a uniform, immutable shape, which means the meter measurement calculated using the North Pole-to-equator distance isn't consistent. And despite incredible care, Big K is slowly losing mass — approximately 50 micrograms over the last 100 years — which CNN notes is "roughly equivalent to the weight of an eyelash." For day-to-day applications, this isn't a problem, but for scientific endeavors — such as weighing out tiny doses of pharmaceuticals or accurately measuring radioactive compounds — this small loss could have big consequences. The solution? Create a new kilogram based on the fundamental properties of the universe. Beyond Big K Replacing Big K with something better didn't happen overnight. For decades, scientists have been improving the ability to accurately measure key universal constants. According to NIST, this led to a 2018 vote which would redefine four of the seven measurements used by the International System of Units. The vote passed, and on World Metrology Day 2019, the new definitions went into effect. For time, this meant tying a second to the amount of time it takes one atom of cesium 133 to complete 9,192,631,770 cycles of microwave radiation release, as LiveScience explains. For length, it meant linking a meter to the speed of light itself — specifically, the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458th of a second. Because these constants don't change (at least from the perspective of human beings) these measurements are accurate and reliable whenever, wherever. But how do you redefine a kilogram? Turns out, you don't use weight — you use a constant that has mass as one of its parameters. Specifically, the Planck constant. It looks like this: 6.62607015 x 10-34m2kg/s. The constant describes how matter releases energy in discrete amounts — known as quanta — and thanks to a tool known as the Kibble Balance, scientists have been able to calculate the Planck constant down to an extremely tiny margin of error. By accurately equating the mechanical energy of an object's mass with its electrical energy, the balance has increased Planck constant confidence to the point that it can serve as the non-physical representation of the SI kilogram. Here's why: The super-accurate Plank constant contains three units — meters, seconds and kilograms. Both the meter and second are now defined using universal constants, making them incredibly reliable. With a near-perfect Planck in hand, scientists have agreed to define the new kilogram in terms of the constant, allowing more precise — and unchanging — measurements. Killing the Kilogram So, what does this mean for metric (and Imperial) users across the world? From a practical standpoint, almost nothing. A pound is still a pound at the grocery store or on your bathroom scale. But we're no longer tied to the slowly-shrinking mass of not-so-big Big K, meaning increased accuracy for super-small weights and measures and a standardization of units that relies on the fundamental properties of the universe — rather than the frail physicality of protected platinum pucks. 

The Weight Is Over: New Kilogram Moves From Platinum Pucks to the Planck Constant

Yesterday, today and tomorrow, time counts.From the opening scene of Christopher Nolan's blockbuster movie Dunkirk the pressure of time is omnipresent. The sound of a ticking watch... tick-tock, tick-tock, grabs you in the chest, and it quickens your heart. Through the movie's remaining 107 minutes, the sound of the ticking watch subsides at points, but listen very closely and it's still there. Accompanying Hans Zimmer's score the persistent tick-tock of passing time is everywhere — it's the driving beat. It's the ever-present reminder that in battle, time is always in command.Zimmer accentuated the endless tick-tock with a Shepard Tone, a musical illusion representing a constantly ascending pitch. It reminds our subconscious selves that not only is time the driving force, but it's winnowing and getting more critical by the minute, the step, and the note.Time was running out at Dunkirk in 1940 when the German war machine threatened to tighten its grip around the desperate forces of the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Poland, Belgium and France.Time was just as pivotal two years later when the US Navy took on the Japanese Imperial Fleet at the Battle of Midway in the most significant battle of the War in the Pacific.Both Dunkirk and Midway are telling illustrations of the impact of time in conflict. At Dunkirk, the Germans chose to halt their advance on the port for three days to consolidate, to avoid an Allied breakout. That precious time made it possible for the remarkable exploits portrayed so evocatively in Dunkirk.At the Battle of Midway it was technology, rather than a hesitation, that gave the US Navy the elixir of time. For example, newly developed radar gave the US aircraft carriers the ability to see 100 miles in all weather conditions compared to the older binoculars used by the Japanese that had a range of 20 miles, and only in the best of weather. That early radar technology gave the USN precious extra time to prepare for incoming aircraft. This, and other technological advances, coupled with—first and foremost—the military exploits of USN servicemen, resulted in the loss of four Japanese aircraft carriers. The Imperial Navy would never recover from that blow.Leap forward 75 years and in 2017 digital transformation is making speed and time more important still.To win in the digital battle space, our forces must act at a faster tempo than their adversaries; as US military strategist John Boyd has suggested, they must get inside their adversaries' Observe-Orient-Decide-Act loop. Doing so will make the US and its allies unpredictable, it will generate confusion and disorder among adversaries. Northrop Grumman (NG) is committed to ensuring our forces maintain a decisive advantage by providing them with mission systems that harness the disruptive force of digital transformation. The engineers at NG are developing advanced software-defined, hardware enabled mission systems that operate at previously unimaginable speeds. These integrated, agile and interoperable C4ISR systems will provide critical decision-making intelligence and allow defense forces to sense, share, collaborate, and act with greater speed and confidence.The three heart-quickening stories told in Dunkirk operate on time scales of a week, a day and an hour. In the stories told of future conflict those will seem like luxuriously relaxed paces. Tomorrow's battles will be won and lost in seconds, microseconds and nanoseconds. Tomorrow's digital battles will be fought in the now cavernous space between tick and tock. Learn how you can be apart of them!

How 'Dunkirk' Started the Digital Transformation of Warfare

Our ancient cousins the Neanderthals spread across Europe more than 100,000 years ago, and survived there through an ice age. Yet, they haven't fared as well in popular culture. Neanderthals are commonly pictured as brutish cavemen, even though as Smithsonian reminds us, their brains were, on average, larger than those of modern humans. They used the same tools as Homo sapiens of the same era, and as Science News notes, growing evidence links Neanderthals to such distinctively human traits as complex personal adornment. Some of them also ate pretty well. The question of what did the European Neanderthals eat is one that touches on both the physical and the cultural side of their characteristics. Their diet may have accounted for their distinctive physical appearance, with a larger pelvis than modern humans, and may even explain why they eventually disappeared. At the same time, the variety of the Neanderthal diet, and their evident ability to hunt or forage for a wide range of foodstuffs testifies to their cognitive and adaptive capabilities. Ice Age Cuisine Neanderthals spread across Europe for hundreds of thousands of years before the first modern humans, Homo sapiens, migrated there from Africa. The rugged tundra-like climate of Europe during glacial eras limited the available food supply. In a subarctic winter, plant foods weren't available, so the Neanderthals were adapted to subsist largely on meat, especially on lean meat with plenty of protein but little fat, according to Smithsonian. But protein is hard to digest, and modern humans have a "protein limit" of about 35-50% maximum allowable protein in their diet, beyond which health problems arise. Neanderthals may have had guts adapted to handle a larger proportion of protein. Their chest and pelvis thus expanded to support a larger liver and kidneys. Not Just Woolly Mammoths Modern humans are omnivores, adapted to eat a wide variety of foods. While Neanderthals may have been especially adapted to subsist on meat, researchers have also found evidence for plant food. This evidence, as Sapiens reports, comes from everything from teeth, which can be examined for wear, to traces of seeds found in coprolites, or fossilized feces. And new evidence is constantly coming to light. Only a year ago, Science Daily described the Neanderthal diet as monotonous, noting in particular that there were no hints that Neanderthals liked to fish. Tasty Treats From Figueira Brava But recent investigation of a cave on the coast of Portugal, reports Science News, shows signs of Neanderthals collecting seafood. "Menu items included mussels, limpets, eels and even sharks," which the report adds might have been caught in shallow water or trapped in large tide pools. The site, called Figueira Brava, is unusual for the Atlantic coast of Europe because the ice age coastline lay close to the modern coastline, so the inhabitants could conveniently bring back their catch to enjoy in the cave. Even so, adds ARCHAEOLOGY, the Neanderthals collecting seafood must have made baskets or sacks to carry it back to the cave. The Neanderthals of Figueira Brava didn't limit their diet to seafood, however. Science News also specifies land-based foods ranging from aurochs (wild cattle) to pine nuts, along with ducks and geese. In short, growing evidence suggests that Neanderthal diets were only monotonous when harsh environmental conditions limited their potential menu. Otherwise, what did the European Neanderthals eat? Growing evidence suggests that, like us, they ate a wide range of foods, including pretty much whatever they could catch or gather. In the end, however, suggests Smithsonian, the Neanderthals may have been doomed by the ice age adaptations their bodies had made to subsist heavily on protein; their heavier bodies were well suited to taking on mammoths. But as the climate changed, they may have lacked the speed and agility of their Homo sapiens cousins, even though they had similarly varied dinner tastes.

Before Paleo: What Did the European Neanderthals Eat?

 Who is Barbara Cartland? A quick Google search turns up the obvious result: Mary Barbara Hamilton Cartland (later honored as Dame Cartland) was one of the most prolific romance novel writers in history, with more than 700 published books. As noted by the New York Times, she regularly churned out 23 novels every year. No surprise, then, that she appeared more than once in the Guiness Book of Records as the world's best-selling author, and her works have been translated into 36 languages.  If that were the whole story, it would certainly be enough for literary enthusiasts and those curious about the sheer speed of potential prose production. But there's another side to Dame Cartland: She was a daredevil who pushed the high-society fad of glider planes to their limits — and shares at least some credit for the Allied victory on D-Day.  Curious? Here's the real story of the romance novelist-turned-innovator.    High Society  Born in July 1901 to Mary Hamilton Scobell and her husband Major Bertram "Bertie" Cartland of the British Army, Barbara Cartland began her life firmly in middle-class comfort. The death of her grandfather and father in short order, however, forced her mother to find a new home for the family and open her own business — a London dress shop — to cover expenses. Cartland's two younger brothers were killed in battle in 1940, while she gained success first as a society reporter and then as a romance novelist. Her work followed a consistent theme: innocent young virgins meeting handsome and entirely honorable men, getting married and enjoying chaste romantic encounters — Cartland herself was said to dislike physical contact and eschewed common vices such as smoking and drinking.  Despite the relatively tame nature of her subject matter, however, her novels remained risqué© for the time and were effectively pulp fiction, especially given the rate at which she churned them out — always dictated to aides, never written by hand or on a typewriter. And while her written work paved the way for financial success, she also earned popular acclaim for her sense of style and contributions as a welfare officer during World War II, eventually securing a place in the Order of the British Empire. Cartland died in May 2000 at the age of 98.  Taking Off  The description above paints a clear picture of Cartland: society woman facing the challenges of family hardship and creating a lucrative career that paved the way for a lasting role in British celebrity life. But there's another side to Barbara Cartland, one with her feet off the ground and her head in the clouds. She was a daredevil, obsessed with the high-society sport of gliding. As noted by io9, gliders became popular among the upper class during the 1920s and 1930s, and Cartland was an accomplished pilot. Gliders occupy an odd space in aeronautics: They're what you get when you take a plane and remove their ability to independently sustain flight. Instead, gliders are towed by powered aircraft and then let go for short-haul flights.   Enable targeting cookies to view this content.  But this wasn't enough for Cartland. She arranged for the first long-distance (200-mile) tow and, along with two Royal Air Force officers, designed the first aircraft-towed airmail delivery glider. During World War II, the Allies expanded on her idea, using powered aircraft to tow troop-carrying gliders near their destination and then cutting them loose. Skilled pilots were able to land these gliders with almost pinpoint accuracy, meaning units could quickly get to work rather than collecting members and equipment after parachute-based drops. In addition, troop gliders were virtually silent, making them difficult to detect in flight. Early success led to gliders as key troop transports during D-Day, and though Cartland wouldn't have said so herself, her contribution was considered critical to Allied success at Normandy. Today, a thriving tow-and-glider plane culture exists, informed in large part by Cartland's work in the early 1930s.  Dame Barbara Cartland doesn't seem like an innovator at first glance but, just like radio-guidance developer Hedy Lamarr, makes it clear that creativity is an unpredictable force — romance novelists and glider revolutionaries aren't so very far apart as one might initially think.

Barbara Cartland: Romance Novelist, Glider Revolutionary?

Are sharks going extinct? Today, they are considered an endangered species. But scientists studying deep sediment layers from the ocean floor found evidence that sharks may have nearly faced extinction millions of years ago, too. Analysis of microfossils in core samples revealed a previously unrecognized extinction that wiped out around 90% of sharks 19 million years ago. Pacific ocean sharks — and possibly worldwide open ocean populations of the species — disappeared thanks to a mysterious event. The study, published in Science, explains that not only did populations crash, but they also became a lot less diverse. With the knowledge of this long-ago event, and with current populations under threat, scientists and conservationists looking into the endangerment of sharks today may be able to glean insight from the past. Counting Fish Teeth and Shark Scales Evidence for what happened in our planet's past usually comes from the fossil record buried in rock or sediment. By looking closely at what's buried in each layer, scientists can document events chronologically. And that's what the Yale University researchers were doing when they discovered this mysterious, unexplained extinction event affecting the sharks. The study involved analyzing deep sediment cores from sites in the North and South Pacific, as Australian ABC reported. These were chosen as they were least likely to have experienced much change caused by ocean floor drift or currents. Cataloging microfossils, called ichthyoliths, in deeper and deeper layers of sediment eventually took them to a point where there was a marked difference in the abundance of shark fossils compared with fish. The team was looking at the ratio of fish teeth to shark scales in each sediment layer. Since shark skeleton is cartilaginous, it does not calcify to form fossils. However, the scales that form shark skin do form fossils because these denticles contain the mineral bioapatite. They survive extremely well in the red clay sediment cores and allow researchers to not only count them but also examine their morphology. Deeper, older core samples contained around one dermal denticle from Pacific ocean sharks for every five fish teeth. However, at the 19-million-years mark, the denticles became very scarce, dropping to around one for every 100 fish teeth. Loss of Individual Sharks and Diversity Current shark populations are only a fraction of what was teeming in the oceans 19 million years ago — not only in numbers but also in species diversity. In addition to counting denticles and teeth, the scientists also studied the size and shape of the shark scales. They saw that around the time of the dramatic decline in shark numbers, there was also a change in the morphology of the denticles. The Smithsonian Institute notes that denticles help sharks swim faster. The shape of the scales and their surface features vary according to species. Grouping the scales found during the sediment surveys, the researchers saw that geometric-shaped scales almost vanished while those with surface striations or grooves could still be found. The extinction event seemed very selective for certain Pacific ocean shark species. Why Are Sharks Going Extinct? Sharks have been around for 400 million years. Science News notes that sharks survived the asteroid strike that wiped out the dinosaurs 66 million years ago, although between 30% and 40% were lost at the time. Sharks also survived the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum that saw a dramatic rise in global carbon dioxide and temperature around 56 million years ago. However, something happened around 19 million years ago that seriously impacted populations and took place over a time frame of only 100,000 years. LiveScience notes that the study doesn't show if this happened over a day, a week, a year or 1000s of years. It was a surprising discovery to the research team and the reason for the extinction event still isn't known. Today's sharks are mostly under siege from human activity. A study published in Nature calls out overfishing as the major pressure on Pacific ocean sharks and other populations today. Harvesting them for their fins is impacting many populations around the world. Although the scientists still don't know what caused the massive die-off 19 million years ago, the work is an important part of today's conservation efforts. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Today's Pacific Ocean Sharks Aren't What They Were 19 Million Years Ago

There's a widening split in the Earth's surface in the East Siberia taiga, or forest. It's around 0.6 miles long with crater walls measuring over 300 feet to its floor. Local Yakutian people won't go near what they call the "doorway to the underworld" because of the constant crashing emanating from the chasm as its walls collapse, according to Atlas Obscura. The Batagaika Crater fascinates scientists as it grows bigger each year (30 to 100 feet), slowly revealing thousands of years of climate history. The crater may even give us insight into how climate change could alter the land we live on. Opening the Door to the Underworld So, how did the door to the underworld open? In the 1960s, forests covering the area around the Batagaika Crater were removed. Without its cover, the tundra heated up and its permafrost started to thaw. As the ice melted, the ground started to slump and distort. This in turn affected tree growth, and the protective forest cover hasn't been able to grow back. Each year, the ground heats up, more permafrost thaws and, as NASA's Earth Observatory has recorded, the crater grows. A multisensory satellite imaging study published in the journal Environmental Earth Sciences shows that the crater has grown three times larger between 1991 and 2018, and the fastest increase took place most recently between 2010 and 2014. Treasures From the Deep Opening the door to the underworld has had some benefits. With each slump and collapse, the Batagaika Crater exposes more of the Earth's history in the region. As the walls peel back on the world's largest permafrost crater, thousands of years of history are exposed, unearthing long-buried strata lines of sediment and prehistoric vegetation. Along with fossils and extremely well-preserved, long-extinct animals, scientists have been able to study the layers of ice age and vegetation growth stretching back over 200,000 years. Science Alert shows how data from this megaslump — or thermokarst — is helping researchers learn more about climate change. By examining the morphology of each layer and the plant remnants they contain, the scientists can then build a picture of what the landscape looked like and what kind of climate formed it. In addition to extracting blood from a 42,000-year-old foal, described here by Smithsonian Mangazine, climate scientists have been able to conceive how plant life adapted to temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide fluctuations. Information like this is extremely valuable in dealing with climate change. Unleashed From the Underworld However, other climate-change "gifts" driving the growth of the Batagaika Crater and effecting similar areas might not be so welcome. Although warmer conditions are a boon for Arctic exploration, thawing permafrost is releasing some unpleasant surprises. Scientists have already seen the ice release long-extinct pathogens still capable of causing disease. What the ice held safely in isolation is now bubbling back up to the surface. Heavy metals within the permafrost are now mobile, and toxic waste dumps can leach into water supplies. As The Narwhal notes, it's not only toxins such as mercury or industrial waste that affect the landscape; the thaw affects the landscape itself, altering ecosystems and food supplies for the animals and humans that make the Arctic region home. Even the world's global seed vault buried in permafrost on the Svalbard Archipelago is at risk. And the thaw itself is also contributing to climate change. Loss of permafrost releases not only carbon dioxide stores but also methane into the atmosphere. Arctic permafrost stores around 1.4 billion metric tons (around 1.54 tons) of carbon, according to The Narwhal, making it one of the largest carbon sinks in the world. Furthermore, warming the land activates microbes that can break down vegetable matter into methane, which then bubbles into the atmosphere through the newly permeable tundra. It's also raining more, which drives further thawing. The Batagaika Crater might be a door that is difficult to close.

Climate History Exposed by the Crumbling Batagaika Crater

James Cronin passed away Aug. 25, 2016 at the age of 84. The famed particle physicist was awarded the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physics for his research that challenged the accepted theory of how matter behaved. A tireless champion of science, Cronin's interests covered many fields in physics. From the Big Bang to cosmic rays, Cronin's impact on science to present day is as expansive as the universe itself.Cronin's crowning achievement was his research with Val Fitch. In 1964, the duo were Princeton University professors experimenting with matter and its destructive opposite: antimatter. The work of Cronin and Fitch was an important step in validating the Big Bang theory for the creation of the universe.The Big Bang Vs. the Steady StateNow widely supported in 2016, the Big Bang theory had its fair share of detractors at the time who believed in the Steady State theory for how the universe was created. Instead of an explosion leading to the birth of the universe, the Steady State theory suggested there was no beginning.Both theories were trying to answer the origin of the universe while offering an explanation for its expansion. The Steady State theory, developed by Sir Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold, stated that matter was being consistently created at the same rate as the expansion of the universe in order to maintain the same density. The universe was persistent with no beginning, middle or end.Imagine an expanding field of rubber ducks . Every time there is an empty space caused by the expansion, you replace it with another duck. That's what was happening in the Steady State theory, except the ducks were galaxies and they were replaced by new galaxies from matter left behind.Using that same metaphor, picture the Big Bang as one giant rubber duck exploding to create an infinite number of of smaller rubber ducks and anti-rubber ducks. Some of these ducks would collide and destroy each other, but enough ducks would remain to seed the universe with matter to create stars, planets and galaxies.Beyond bragging rights, confirmation or acceptance of an incorrect theory would severly limit scientific advancement. Think of it as going down a wrong path as you head to your friend's house in an unfamiliar part of town. There are some things that make sense, but ultimately you went the wrong way and have to backtrack.A Nobel-Winning ViolationAnother battle between order and chaos was taking place in a much smaller, but no less significant, scale at the same time. Symmetry, the idea that the universe would be unaffected by reversing every particle's charge (C), parity (P) or time (T), was the accepted standard when Cronin began his research.Symmetry was slowly being chipped away, as the fundamental particles of the universe were beginning to reveal their chaotic nature. The Nobel Prize in Physics in 1957 was awarded to researchers who discovered a violation of P-symmetry. A violation of C-symmetry was previously discovered, which led to the theory that the two violations would cancel out, thus leading to CP invariance. Two wrongs would make symmetry right, according to this invariance principle.In 1964, Cronin and Fitch found a CP-invariance violation through an experiment with a decaying kaon, a subatomic particle. Finding a CP violation also meant finding a T-symmetry violation because you wouldn't end up with the same result if you reversed time. The CP violation revealed that matter and antimatter behaved differently, which helps explain why humans are around today.If matter and antimatter were created in equal measure at the start of the Big Bang, they would have annihilated each other. Yet, there's way more matter than antimatter in the universe. The CP violation, by explaining that matter and antimatter behaved differently, helped to provide a solution to why matter survived after the Big Bang, furthering the acceptance of the theory over the Steady State theory.Cronin's work served as a springboard to greater scientific discovery. Scientists could use Cronin's work to probe deeper into fundamental particles and the universe itself. That expansion of scientific discovery was every bit as explosive as the beginning of the universe. All of science and industry can now put their collective energy into the Big Bang and this understanding of how the universe was formed.Without a CP violation, we would still be facing many important questions about the Big Bang. More importantly, the CP violation led to incredible scientific theories exploring the existence of matter over antimatter and shaping multibillion-dollar scientific experiments.The Large Hadron ColliderThrough one violation, our understanding of the universe's beginnings improved and the Standard Model of physics was clarified. Cronin's work has paved the way for current experiments. CERN's Large Hadron Collider beauty experiment continues to explore and measure CP violations in different subatomic particles.Researchers around the world are still trying to figure out why there's so much matter compared to antimatter as a direct result of the CP violation. Through this single observation, our understanding of physics and the universe has changed.There's still so much to learn about the very beginning of our universe. Think about all the celestial objects that needed to form after the Big Bang. Soon, NASA's James Webb Space Telescope — being built by Northrop Grumman and scheduled to launch in late 2018 — will be able to peer back in time into the deepest parts of the early universe to further unlock the mysteries of formation after the Big Bang.Cronin's scientific pursuits also involved cosmic rays, high-energy particles that constantly bombard Earth. Co-leading the Pierre Auger Project, Cronin's efforts led to the Pierre Auger Observatory, an international scientific effort studying high-energy cosmic rays. Angela Olinto, the Homer J. Livingston Distinguished Service Professor in Astronomy and Astrophysics, said of Cronin in a statement, "He inspired us all to reach further into the unknown with deep intuition, solid scientific backing and poetic vision."

The Big Bang And James Cronin: How A Violation Led To A Scientific Revolution

Florence Nightingale, the founder of modern nursing, was born in 1820 to a wealthy British family. Determined to help the sick, Nightingale cared for the poor and infirm in the village surrounding her family's estate. She later enrolled in a nursing school in Germany, much to the consternation of her parents. The Science Museum, London noted that while her mother and father greatly encouraged her education, especially her affinity for statistics, they disapproved of nursing, an unsuitable career for a young woman of wealth and stature. This did not dissuade Nightingale, who History.com describes as one of the most famous nurses of all time. On May 12 — International Nurses Day — we celebrate Florence Nightingale. The Founder of Modern Nursing Nightingale started her career at a Middlesex hospital for ailing governesses in the midst of a cholera outbreak. By improving hygienic conditions in the hospital, Nightingale dramatically reduced the mortality rate. Secretary of War Sidney Herbert, who had heard of Nightingale's new hygiene practices, asked her to come to Crimea, where the situation was dire. Employing her aptitude for statistics, according to the Smithsonian, she discovered that more soldiers were dying from infectious diseases than from battle wounds — in short, bad hygiene. At Scutari, the British hospital in Constantinople, Nightingale scrubbed everything from the floors to the ceilings, enlisting the help of the least sick patients. She set up a kitchen, a library and a laundry room so her patients could have clean linens, entertainment and warm food. Nightingale was known for walking down the hallways at night, lamp in hand, as she tended to patients. Ultimately, the International Council of Nurses reported that Nightingale's efforts reduced death rate at the military hospitals from 40 percent to 2 percent. How Did Nightingale Gain Fame? When Nightingale returned home to England, Queen Victoria awarded her an engraved brooch and $250,000, which she used to start a training school for nurses, according to History.com.  At 38 years old, Nightingale worked mostly from her bed due to chronic health issues developed in Crimea. Still, she pushed for health care reform across Europe and reportedly met with most visitors in her bedroom.  By the time she died at age 90, the International Council of Nurses noted that Nightingale had authored more than 200 reports detailing how to manage hospital conditions, proper hygiene and more. What Was Nightingale's Legacy? "The Lady With the Lamp" is considered the founder of modern nursing because of her innovative approach to the field. By focusing on personalized patient care — like good hygiene — recovery was more likely. The holistic approach she advocated, considered revolutionary at the time, is still implemented today.  A lifelong devotee of mathematics, she also became the first female member of the Royal Statistical Society because of her prolific statistical contributions to the war effort. The International Council of Nurses considers Nightingale extremely influential in passing public policy and health care reforms. Modern nurses still look to Nightingale as a role model. A Day to Celebrate International Nurses Day is celebrated on May 12 every year, Florence Nightingale's own birthday. This year, take a moment to celebrate the nurses around us. Most nurses work long shifts and take on dirty and emotionally exhausting tasks without batting an eye. Many are everyday heroes, just like Nightingale.

Florence Nightingale: The Founder of Modern Nursing

Fritz von Opel, nicknamed Rocket Fritz, is known for his experiments and adventures with rocket planes, rocket-powered automobiles and motorcycles. This year, we celebrate the 85th anniversary of Fritz von Opel's revolutionary rocket-propelled drive, which sparked the age of rockets. The story begins in 1927, when von Opel was contacted by fellow pilot and rocket plane enthusiast, Max Valier. Valier was looking for someone to support his rocket propulsion experiments, according to Jalopnik. Fritz's grandfather founded the Opel automobile company, so it might be said that a taste for speed was in his blood. Von Opel — who was always looking for new ways to go fast and gain publicity for the Opel company — agreed to collaborate with Valier. "On Instinct Alone" On April 11, 1928 — a largely forgotten benchmark date in the history of rockets — Fritz von Opel became the first known human to ride a rocket-powered car. The RAK-1 reached a top speed of about 60 miles per hour (100 kph), according to Opel. An improved model, the RAK-2, reached a top speed of 145 mph (238 kph). As Opel proudly recounts, Rocket Fritz described his handling of the vehicle as "acting on instinct alone, with uncontrollable forces raging behind me." The RAK-3 set an unmanned speed record on railroad tracks, but the RAK-4 exploded, and that was the end of Opel's experiments with rocket-powered cars. A proposed rocket motorcycle was abandoned under pressure from the authorities. Taking to the Air Meanwhile, as Jalopnik notes, Fritz von Opel and Max Valier had raised their rocket propulsion goals to the skies. Valier had already co-founded the legendary Verein fé¼r Raumschiffahrt (Society for Space Travel), a group of space enthusiasts and experimenters that included a young Wehrner von Braun. According to Popular Science, Valier foresaw the potential of rocket planes for spaceflight as early as 1924, long before he met Fritz von Opel. Valier wanted to outfit a regular plane with a rocket engine, with the hopes that it would significantly reduce intercontinental travel time. Alas, few details of von Opel's and Valier's rocket plane experiments were recorded. Strange Vehicles reported that von Opel bought a sailplane called the Ente and fitted it with rocket motors, but the aircraft exploded on its second test flight, before he had a chance to fly it. Fritz von Opel ended his rocket propulsion experiments there, and Max Valier was killed in a 1930 rocket explosion. Return of the Rocket Plane The greatest age of the rocket plane may still be ahead, as researchers continue to explore the possibility of spaceplanes that can use jet power to take off from a runway and climb through the atmosphere, then use rocket power to reach orbital speed. The challenges and potential of this technology are both enormous. The U.S. Air Force's X-planes, most famously the X-15, pioneered supersonic and hypersonic flight. Hypersonic transport — much more advanced than von Opel and Valier's inventions — could make space travel affordable and accessible for the everyday person.  Yet, when considering the history of rockets, we should not forget those days, not yet a century ago, when rocket-powered cars and motorcycles were the technology of the future.

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