It's officially hotter than ever. July 2023 was the hottest month on record. Global average temperatures for the month were likely the highest in 120,000 years, according to the United Nations.
"The era of global warming has ended ... and the era of global boiling has arrived," United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres warned in a statement.
How do we know for sure? International scientists compiled data from satellites, sensors and thermometers, along with millennia of climate data extracted from tree rings, coral reefs and deep-sea sediment cores. The consensus: It's getting hot in here. Way too hot.
Are Summers Getting Hotter?
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, global surface temperatures in July were 2.02 °F above the 20th-century average. The heat spike does not appear to be a fluke. Data collected by scientists worldwide shows a clear pattern of hotter summers — this was the 47th consecutive July with temperatures above the 20th century's average.
And the heat wasn't isolated to a few extreme locations — the record-warm temperatures covered 9.3% of the earth's surface. Not only was July the hottest month on record, but several other records were shattered, including the following:

    Hottest day: July 3 was the hottest day in recorded history, as the average global temperature reached 62.62 °F, according to ScienceNews. The following days were even more extreme, and that new record was tied or broken three more times. So now, the hottest day ever recorded is July 6, 2023, which saw average global temperatures of 63.01 °F.
    Highest ocean temperatures: For the fourth month in a row, global ocean surface temperatures set a record high, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
    Lowest sea ice: Sea ice coverage also hit a record low. In other words, less ice is covering the ocean than ever. The WMO reports that, globally, sea ice extent in July 2023 was about 470,000 square miles less than the previous record low from July 2019, according to the United States National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC). Take Antarctica, for example. Sea ice coverage ranked lowest on record for the third month in a row. The frozen continent is running about 1 million square miles — roughly the size of Argentina — below the 1991–2020 average.

"What we're seeing this year is uncharted territory in the satellite record," said Walt Meier, a sea ice scientist at NSIDC.
What's Causing the Extreme Heat?
"The monthly climate monitoring reports ... confirm the extraordinary pace of climate change as a result of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere," according to the WMO.
While some people remain skeptical, NASA summarizes the wealth of evidence for rapid climate change:

    The global temperature is rising.
    The ocean is getting warmer.
    The ice sheets are shrinking.
    Glaciers are retreating.
    Snow cover is decreasing (based on satellite observations).
    The sea level is rising.
    Arctic sea ice is declining.
    Extreme weather events are increasing in frequency.
    Ocean acidification is increasing.

Meanwhile, there is a perfect storm happening as climate change and El Niño coincide. El Niño is a climate pattern that describes the unusual warming of surface waters in the eastern Pacific Ocean, per National Geographic. El Niño appears every few years but is not as predictable as other events, like the tides or seasons.
"Depending on its strength, El Niño can cause a range of impacts, such as increasing the risk of heavy rainfall and droughts in certain locations around the world," Michelle L'Heureux, climate scientist at the Climate Prediction Center, told the National Weather Service. "Climate change can exacerbate or mitigate certain impacts related to El Niño. For example, El Niño could lead to new records for temperatures, particularly in areas that already experience above-average temperatures during El Niño."
The Consequences of Rising Temps
Scientists have been concerned about climate change since the 1800s, and the broader public has been increasingly aware of the planet's increasing temperatures in recent years. But while scenes of melting glaciers and suffering arctic animals are alarming, they can still seem distant. What happens when temperatures rise in more populated areas? Extreme heat affects human and animal health and the entire ecosystem.
"We just witnessed global air temperatures and global ocean surface temperatures set new all-time records in July. These records have dire consequences for both people and the planet exposed to ever more frequent and intense extreme events," Samantha Burgess, Deputy Director of the Copernicus Climate Change Service, told a media briefing at the United Nations in Geneva.
Hotter temperatures may affect extreme weather events. The natural disasters we already contend with — events like wildfires and hurricanes — can become more frequent and powerful. And as ice melts, we're seeing unusual effects, such as ancient viruses thawing out.
Now What?
The evidence is compelling. While locals are asking, "Are summers getting hotter?" scientists, technologists and world leaders are looking toward solutions. There isn't an easy fix, but there are steps we can take to get back on track toward a healthy planet.
Engineers are developing technology to mitigate the effects of greenhouse gases. Scientists continue to collect data to understand the consequences of a changing climate. And concerned citizens are spreading the word and advocating for environmentally friendly policies.
Interested in doing your part to protect the environment by developing innovative technology solutions? Learn more about our people and life at Northrop Grumman, or check out our career opportunities to see how you can be a part of defining possible.

The Era of Global Boiling: July Was the Hottest Month on Record

Natural phenomena hold many portals to the underworld. We've already witnessed The Door to the Underworld courtesy of the Batagaika Crater in the Eastern Siberia tundra. Welcome now to the Gates of Hell, aflame for the last 40 years or so in the middle of Turkmenistan's Karakum Desert. While there are various origin stories for this incredible sight, the Darvaza gas crater has been attracting tourists — and spiders — since the last part of the 20th century. A Giant Sinkhole Burning in the Desert The Darvaza gas crater is a giant pit in the ground, measuring around 230 feet (70 m) across and 99 feet (30 m) deep, as Atlas Obscura reports. The walls of the crater are alight, burning off methane escaping at high pressure from the surrounding dirt. At night, the pit glows with an eerie light out of the desert darkness. Around the crater, the air is warmed by the crater's gas burn. According to The Independent, the temperature inside the crater reaches 1,000 C (1,830 F), and the silence of desert life is blotted out by the slow roar of burning gas. Drilling Rig Accidents and Other Tales No one knows exactly what started the football-field-sized fiery crater or when it started to burn. Records from the area don't exist, and most history is from hearsay. Rumor has it that in the old days of the Soviet Union, when Turkmenistan was one of the Soviet socialist republics, a team of geologists prospecting for fossil fuel made an error. Science Alert says that they miscalculated the strength of the ground, and their drilling rig crashed spectacularly through the surface. A giant gas pocket had weakened the overlying surface and couldn't bear the rig's weight. Once this happened, the crater formed as the sinkhole swallowed the Soviet equipment. Along with the sinkhole and various other craters, the disturbance also released methane pockets as the surface fractured. Under high pressure and with an easier escape route, the gas rushed from the hole and into the surrounding desert. Because methane displaces oxygen, it quickly made the surrounding desert uninhabitable and killed off local wildlife. It also posed quite a danger — Smithsonian Magazine notes that only around 5% concentration in the air is explosive. The authorities at the time made the decision to burn it off, expecting the flare to die down in a few weeks. That was 1971, and the Darvaza gas crater has supposedly been burning ever since — although some locals will tell you that the crater was present a decade or two earlier, collapsing just like other natural phenomena, and has only been alight since the 1980s. Tourists, Spiders and Scientists Tourist interest is reportedly one of the main reasons why no one has extinguished the crater. It's an amazing sight, and tour companies bring their guests to camp out in the desert to experience the Darvaza gas crater at night. As the crater glows orange into the darkened sky, the warmth from the raging fires keeps campers warm despite the freezing night air. Spiders and moths are also attracted. Science Alert reports that spiders are lured in by the warmth, with thousands of them falling into the fiery pit. And moths are attracted by the glow, which brings flocks of birds hunting them, according to Insider. But no one has survived in the depths apart from scientist and explorer George Kourounis, who descended to collect soil samples from the crater floor. Alien Landscape on Earth In order to survive inside the burning crater, Kourounis equipped himself with heat-reflective protective gear and carried his own air supply, he told National Geographic. Convection currents that circulate in the crater due to the extreme heat suck the breathable air from the bottom of the crater; falling in would result in swift asphyxiation followed by a slow roast in the heat. Kourounis used heat-resistant ropes and had a climbing harness made from Kevlar for the journey. He also spent time with a Hollywood stunt coordinator being set on fire to prepare himself for being among the flames. This might sound extreme — until you see drone footage captured during a separate visit by photographer Alessandro Belgiojoso, featured in The Independent, which shows the walls flickering fervently with flames as the methane burns. The National Geographic report details Kourounis's expedition, with the explorer describing being inside the Darvaza gas crater as being in a "coliseum of fire." The noise from the burning gas blocked off all sound from the exterior, and Kourounis briefly passed out from heat on the way back to the crater rim. He did manage to collect soil samples during his brief walkabout on the crater floor. These showed that bacteria capable of thriving in extreme conditions, similar to extremophiles seen in the Yellowstone hot vents, existed in the crater. When asked about his experience and why he wanted to knock on hell's gates, Kourounis explained that visiting alien landscapes like these on Earth can help research on similar off-world environments.

The Gates of Hell Burn Brightly at the Darvaza Gas Crater

The destruction caused by a natural disaster launches emergency services and rescue teams into action, and usually triggers waves of donations and support from those far away. Inevitably, though, focus turns elsewhere, and the rebuilding often receives limited widespread attention. It's only inevitable that another fire, flood or hurricane will strike and that resources and public attentiveness will follow. However, it's imperative to not lose sight of successes and failures of the after-disaster period because there are long-term lessons to learn from disasters. If anything, studying how governments, communities and organizations respond to disasters sets the table for more effective preparedness, resilient infrastructure and less money spent on disaster relief. In just six months during 2018, the U.S. government spent $140 billion in disaster assistance, according to the Council on Foreign Relations. According to the World Economic Forum's 2020 report on global risks, cumulative findings by federal agencies suggests that in the U.S. alone, climate-related economic damage could reach 10% of gross domestic product (GDP) by the end of the century. "We are a country that feels really good about helping out. After these disasters we have the Red Cross and other organizations providing assistance and raising money to help after the crisis," said Olivia Aguilar, an associate professor of environmental studies at Mount Holyoke College and director of the college's Miller Worley Center for the Environment. "It doesn't translate, though. Recovery costs are in the billions. If we demanded policies that were proactive, it would cost us less. We wouldn't be doing all of these out-of-pocket recoveries." In other words, studying the past can inform future actions. Learning About Disaster Relief More than 18,500 people died and more than 2,600 went missing after the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami in 2011. The two events destroyed 130,000 homes and severely damaged another 270,000. "Learning from Megadisasters — Lessons from the Great East Japan Earthquake," an exhaustive study commissioned by the World Bank, reviewed the structural and non-structural measures that were in place prior to Tohoku. But it also reviewed the many forms of disaster response — including the field work of emergency and medical teams and the logistic supply chain for emergency supplies — as well as how the country could move forward to rebuild home and lost careers. An unthinkable triple-blow of earthquake, tsunami and accident at Fukushima Nuclear Power Station gave the Japanese government and outside experts such as the World Bank a lot to consider. Perhaps one of the most chilling findings was how delayed warnings might have affected how many residents fled the path of the tsunami. With about 602,000 people in those at-risk areas, 20,000 were killed or went missing. "The Japan Meteorological Agency's underestimation of the tsunami's height issued three minutes after the earthquake is likely to have delayed the evacuation," the World Bank report said. "Others, believing that the coastal dikes would protect them, may have delayed evacuations." The World Bank study didn't just go on a shelf. It had another aim. Eight countries — Armenia, Indonesia, Kenya, the Kyrgyz Republic, Maldives, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka and Uganda — vowed to use the report's results and visits to Japan to tailor disaster preparedness specific to their local systems. In Armenia, government officials developed structural measures and building codes based on their learning experiences in Japan. Armenia is at high risk for earthquakes. While studying how Japan handled post-Tohoku responses, government officials from Sierra Leone also wanted to learn more about the country's disaster prevention and risk management practices, specifically how natural hazards can slow economic development. "The measures and tools that the Japanese have designed and implemented were presented to (Sierra Leone) to demonstrate that a culture of prevention helps to sustain growth," the World Bank report said. Overcoming the Roadblocks of Recovery  With natural disasters increasing in frequency, and the need to learn from them perhaps greater than ever, the consulting firm McKinsey looked at why governments can't always effectively manage recovery. Although released in 2015, the McKinsey report "Improving Disaster Recovery: Lessons Learned in the United States" provides valuable advice today.  McKinsey found four roadblocks for governments:    Political pressure to disperse disaster relief is intense. Public expectations about the amount, pace and flexibility of recovery funding are rarely met because public officials tend to set unrealistic targets before they understand recovery issues.    Receiving and spending political aid can take a long time. For example, congressional approval of emergency funding can take months and environmental assessments even more months, while the rebuilding of complex capital infrastructure is not a quick endeavor.   Government leaders have an abundance of resources but face complex tasks they are unprepared to administer, so they often misjudge resources and skills required to deliver.   Recovery governance requires commitment to bold organizational changes that leaders are often too risk-averse to make.  McKinsey offered a long list of recommendations to improve response, and there are a few worth noting. Governments should appoint a "strong, experienced" leadership team and establish an integrated governance body to gain the support of the public, other government agencies and financial backers. This will help with other efforts, such as securing the ongoing advice of disaster experts, having vendors implement specific recovery programs, creating a procurement team and ensuring the leadership team has complete independence. Focused and disciplined disaster recovery is possible, the report notes. McKinsey cites the "quick win" recovery efforts following Hurricane Sandy in 2012. For instance, New Jersey allocated about $200 million worth of federal homeowner grants, giving more than 18,000 people $10,000 grants for construction expenses. And in only 100 days, a New York City program gave away $640 million to restore heat, power and hot water to 11,700 housing buildings. Those programs worked because those governments prioritized projects that required less lead time to establish than full-fledged repair and reconstruction programs, the report said. Disaster Prevention at All Levels of Government  "Whatever you think can't happen, assume it will," are wise words from a North Carolinian quoted in the Zurich Insurance report, "Events Are Natural, Disasters Are Not." As with the other studies, this one also offers lessons to learn from disasters. That North Carolina resident was quoted after Zurich examined the damage Hurricane Florence caused in that state in 2018. And things did "happen" because of flooding from Florence. Stricken coal ash waste storage sites released heavy metals into rivers, while hog waste escaped from storage lagoons and killed thousands of fish in the Cape Fear River. Here was, the report noted, an opportunity to transcend cross-jurisdictional hurdles (those posed by separate regulations in the energy and agricultural industries) and have stronger coordinated enforcement by governments. Indeed, governments will inevitably drive the response to disaster and the preparation for them, according to Mount Holyoke's Aguilar. "Government matters," she said. "Without government support it will be really hard to address these issues at the local levels." 

Lessons to Learn From Disasters Can Shape Preventative Measures

Have you ever looked at a tall bridge or high rise building and thought, "I'd hate to be up there in an earthquake?" It turns out you might actually be safer on one of those structures than in your own home, thanks to new and evolving civil engineering technology focused on disaster mitigation. Civil engineers focus on the design, construction, operation and maintenance of infrastructure projects such as roads, bridges and water delivery systems. Increasingly, they include disaster mitigation technologies in every project. Why? Because the less an earthquake, flood or fire affects a facility's safe operation, the sooner emergency management officials can get it back in service. Be Flexible, Enjoy the Ride  The U.S. government has invested heavily in networks designed to monitor indicators of potential natural disasters. Yet, it remains nearly impossible to know when the next disaster will strike, how strong it will be or how long it will last. As a result, civil engineers design structures to work "with" rather than "against" the forces of Mother Nature. Building designers in California, for example, use shear walls and metal joint reinforcement brackets to make structures more resilient to earthquakes. "If you make a building an elastic, well-connected box, its major structural elements will move together," explained John Schuricht, a structural engineer with Palos Verdes Engineering Corporation in Los Angeles. Without reinforcement, the building's main elements will move in random ways during an earthquake, potentially pulling the structure apart. The new San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, opened in 2013, is a model of civil engineering technology that adapts to reality. Its self-anchored suspension bridge features a main tower, road deck and suspension cable that can bend and sway during an earthquake. The bridge also uses an innovative technology called hinge pipe beams — picture giant metal dowels and matching sleeves — installed under the road deck at junctions between its major sections. The beams allow road sections to slide back and forth as much as six feet without damaging the bridge.   The bridge's adaptive technology proved itself on August 24, 2014, when the South Napa earthquake — a magnitude 6.0 temblor and the biggest earthquake to hit the Bay Area in 25 years — left the bridge unscathed. Bend, Don't Break Disaster mitigation strategies also drive civil engineering technology used in public water storage and delivery systems. "We pay particular attention to the seismic resiliency of our emergency water tanks" said Todd Peters, chief engineer for the California Water Service Company, San Jose, Calif. All piping attached to the tanks is flexible, he explained, and the tanks are anchored seismically. "We also include 'head space' in each tank to allow water to slosh around during an earthquake, which reduces stress on the tank's structure," Peters added. The company has begun using pipes with flexible, earthquake-resistant joints to avoid breakage in areas with high seismic activity. Learn From Nature's Laboratory For civil engineers, every natural disaster provides an opportunity to test and improve their disaster mitigation strategies. California's Department of Transportation (Caltrans), which manages and maintains the state's highway system, has learned expensive lessons from each of the region's last major quakes. The Sylmar earthquake in 1971, for example, demonstrated the need to reinforce the tops and bottoms of the concrete columns that support the state's more than 12,000 bridges and overpasses. Freeways that collapsed during the 1994 Northridge earthquake taught Caltrans that all of the columns supporting a bridge should be approximately the same stiffness.  "Today we're building bridges with civil engineering technology that dissipates seismic energy at the ends of columns," said Mark Mahan, chief of Caltrans' Office of Earthquake Engineering, Analysis, & Research. "Either we form and pour the columns on site, adding reinforcing steel hoops at the ends of each column, or we build the bridge using precast concrete components integrated with reinforcing steel," he said. Drive Recovery With Data  Even if you've designed your bridge or water delivery system to survive the big one, you'd still like to verify its actual condition once the shaking stops. Caltrans' new ShakeCast system can help. Developed in collaboration with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), ShakeCast is a web-based application. Within minutes of detection of an earthquake by USGS sensors, it sends out estimates of earthquake shaking, by location, to Caltrans and other state, federal and local agencies. ShakeCast can't tell you the condition of specific structures, but it can guide the deployment of structural inspection teams to areas most likely affected by an earthquake. Civil engineers will never defeat natural disasters, but if they can force a draw through deployment of smart, adaptive technologies, everybody wins.  Photo Source: Caltrans Photo Source: WikimediaCommons/U.S. Geological Survey 

Civil Engineers Build Resilience Into Disaster Mitigation Efforts

"Houston, we have a problem!" 
Those words from the astronauts of Apollo 13 triggered the most famous emergency response of the space age, as the crew and their teammates back on Earth fought to bring their crippled spaceship safely home.
Bringing history full circle, NASA's own Houston Space Flight Center has required hurricane protection, so that it can continue its mission of providing first responders, crisis managers and the public with critical information about storm and flooding conditions.
Real-Time Hurricane Trackers
 Enable targeting cookies to view this content.
Hurricane Harvey first pummeled the city and its surrounding metropolitan area with historic record rainfall, then came back around to hit them with more. Some locations recorded nearly 5 feet of rainfall.
Thousands have been rescued from the rising floodwaters, while tens of thousands more fled their homes. Simply grasping the full scope of the tragedy is an ongoing process. Floodwaters may not recede for weeks; full recovery and rebuilding will take years.
Every stage of the emergency response, from tracking the hurricane to planning rescue missions, has relied crucially on reconnaissance information from space. We have become so accustomed to space imagery that we take it for granted — real-time images of the storm itself and detailed, high-resolution mapping images showing the hurricane from space and extent of the flooding.
All of it is critical lifesaving data, and all of it depends on keeping NASA's mission control and space-based hurricane trackers in operation, even amid a catastrophic flood.
Information to the Rescue


 Enable targeting cookies to view this content.
 
A key player in hurricane protection is the Aqua Earth Observing System satellite, as reported at Space.com. Aqua sends back infrared-light telemetry that allows meteorologists to identify the cloud bands within a hurricane or tropical storm that are most likely to produce heavy rainfall.
When these intense rain bands stalled over the Houston area, Aqua data tipped off forecasters that the greatest threat from Harvey would come not from its high winds or ocean waves, but from days of constant, intense rainfall over the Houston region's low-lying terrain.
Amid the flood disaster, according to Ars Technica, NASA maintained a skeleton crew of 125 people to maintain critical functions ranging from Mission Control for the International Space Station to managing the space center's own emergency response plan.
A NASA spokesperson emailed Ars Technica noting that "[c]urrent work focuses on supporting critical operations, riding out the storm and addressing minor issues such as fixing leaks and keeping drains open as they arise."
Working alongside NASA during space emergencies is a place that Northrop Grumman has been before. We built the Lunar Module, which, though never meant as a lifeboat, safely carried the Apollo 13 astronauts 250,000 miles back to Earth.
We were there for Houston with the Aqua Earth Observing System. And we'll be there tomorrow with the latest hurricane tracker.

Hurricane Tracking: Houston, We Have You in Sight

Lightning and the thunder that it triggers are among the most spectacular of common weather events. Ancient peoples imagined their angry gods hurling lightning bolts, and modern horror filmmakers still rely on lightning as a surefire way to jolt an audience. On average, lightning strikes somewhere in the world about half a dozen times every second. Thus, reports Science magazine, a network of some 100 lightning-detecting radio stations detected around 2 billion lightning strikes between 2010 and 2018. The lightning tracking study also offered insight into a phenomenon that scientists are only beginning to understand: so-called superbolt lightning that strikes with a thousand times the energy of ordinary lightning bolts. Lightning Striking Again The detection network "listened" for lightning strikes by tuning to the very low frequency radio band from 5 to 18 kilohertz, a band in which lightning strikes are readily detected. Most of the strikes it detected released in the neighborhood of a thousand joules of energy within that band. But very occasionally — about once in 250,000 lightning strikes, according to Weatherology — the network detected a strike that was enormously more powerful, releasing more than a million joules of radio energy. And because the very low frequency radio band used by the detector network accounts for only a small fraction of lightning strike energy, the superbolt lightning strikes, reports Science, may range in total energy from 10 billion to a trillion joules. How much energy is that? The most powerful lightning strike releases about as much energy as a low-yield nuclear weapon, a quarter kiloton of TNT. Striking Surprises But the study of worldwide lightning strikes, led by Robert Holzworth of the University of Washington, did more than simply confirm the existence of superbolt lightning. According to Futurity, the study also found that these most powerful lightning strike events are not just amped-up versions of ordinary lightning. Instead, they have a very different distribution pattern in both season and location. Most lightning takes place over land (about 90% of observed strikes), and it's most frequently observed during summer thunderstorms — especially in the "lightning chimney" regions of tropical and subtropical Africa and the Americas, and the islands of Southeast Asia. Superbolt lightning, in contrast, appears most often in October and November, and mainly in the northern hemisphere. It usually strikes at sea, concentrated especially in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean regions, with another concentration near South America's Andes mountains. And Whole New Questions  The occurrence of superbolts also varies widely from year to year. The study recorded the most superbolt lightning strikes in 2013, and a lesser spike in 2014, while far fewer events were recorded in the other years. The study authors speculate that this pattern may be linked to the sunspot cycle, or to cosmic rays. But when it comes to understanding superbolt lightning, you can't look up the answers in the back of the book because that book is still being written. Science Daily quotes study lead author Holzworth as saying of the possible explanations, "We're leaving that as stimulation for future research." 

Superbolt Lightning Strikes With Surprises

Key Takeaways  Chernobyl was the site of the largest nuclear accident in history. Human error led to reactor breakdown and release of radiation. Insight gained from the disaster, which highlighted gaps in protocols and operating systems, led to global efforts and collaboration for nuclear safety.The largest nuclear accident in history initially unfolded in near silence. Explosions and a series of fires sent radioactive materials from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant into the atmosphere of Ukraine — but government officials of the Soviet Union remained largely quiet.More than 30 years later, the causes and consequences of this event are well-known. Those mistakes, alongside the stories of victims, serve as an international blueprint for preventing nuclear disasters. Although circumstances unique to the former Soviet Union caused the accident, the literal and figurative fallout prompted the world to collectively enhance nuclear safety and strive to never repeat the errors and obstinacy that killed 30 people and put the lives of thousands at risk from radiation exposure.Flaws and FailuresAs the recent HBO historical drama series "Chernobyl" and countless books, documentaries and scientific articles have illustrated, the disaster could have been mitigated, if not prevented. Lack of training, systematic mismanagement, operator error and structural flaws triggered the disaster, while government inaction exacerbated the tragedy by delaying the evacuation of nearby residents. Leading into the evening of April 26, 1986, the residents of Pripyat, Ukraine, and most of the employees of the nuclear plant had no idea that the potent mix of human misjudgment and mechanical defects would put them in harm's way.Of the many source materials that detail the disaster, a recap by the World Nuclear Association clearly describes what happened. In short, a defective reactor design, coupled with inadequately trained personnel, decimated the power plant's fourth reactor. What was a training exercise to test the reactor during a power outage instead led to a power surge and the explosions, exposing the nuclear core and sending radioactive materials into the atmosphere. The nearby city of Pripyat wasn't evacuated until nearly two days later and the Soviet government didn't publicly acknowledge the disaster until April 28.Acknowledgment and ChangeChernobyl revealed several gaps in nuclear safety, not just at the power plant but worldwide.First, the disaster uncovered how Russia's nuclear power plants were unlike any others in the world. According to the Nuclear Energy Institute, the power station used a type of reactor, RBMK, that wasn't built anywhere else because of its inherent instability, particularly on start up and shutdown. Operators at the plant conducted their power test unaware that RBMK reactors sometimes increased power. As the fourth reactor overheated, the power soared, accelerating the heating of the steam that drives power generation and also breaking fuel-packed pressure tubes. Also, whereas nuclear reactors in the U.S. rely on water as a cooling mechanism to keep steam generation in check, an RBMK reactor relied on graphite and water. At the plant, graphite and fuel mixed, starting the fires and causing the release of radioactivity, according to World Nuclear Association.After Chernobyl, it became apparent that the world lacked shared norms on nuclear safety. Countries and governments acted on their own. The accident showed a "need for a collective international focus on [nuclear] safety," according to an International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) report on international law.The world responded, a reaction that included a new emphasis on safety by the countries of the former Soviet Union in preventing another nuclear disaster. As the World Nuclear Association outlines, nuclear engineers from those Soviet countries have learned from on-site visits to nuclear power plants in the Western world. Also, the World Association of Nuclear Operators formed in 1989, connecting nuclear power plant operators in more than 30 countries, while the IAEA reviews safety at still-operative Soviet reactors. Because of this openness and cooperation, the remaining RBMK reactors no longer have the deficiencies that doomed Chernobyl. And it's largely assumed the governments of those former Soviet countries will act in a more transparent and urgent manner should there ever be an accident.But thanks to a stronger emphasis on safety, a repeat of the tragedy is all but impossible, a German nuclear safety agency declared in 1996.New Life and TouristsThree decades later, the public health catastrophe that many experts had predicted hasn't — at least not yet — materialized. Two plant workers died on the night of the explosion and an additional 28 employees and firefighters died weeks later from acute radiation poisoning. Since then, the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) said that while no one at a close distance from the plant suffered acute radiation, thyroid cancers found in patients were probably the cause of radioactive fallout. Aside from that finding, "the great majority of the population is not likely to experience serious health consequences as a result of radiation from the Chernobyl accident," UNSCEAR said.Meanwhile, the plant itself is now enclosed in concrete, and the 2,000-mile radius around the site of the largest nuclear disaster is largely devoid of people. More than 300,000 residents had to leave the area. Yet in Belarus, thousands of people have returned to their homes in areas that were contaminated, with experts saying it was safe for them to eat foods grown there.In the area closest to the power plant, known as the Exclusion Zone, wildlife appears to be diseased and there are lower rates of beneficial bacteria, according to National Geographic. Still, because of the lack of a human footprint, some species have expanded. And in a sign that all is not lost, some areas are safe enough to allow "nuclear tourists."We are committed to protecting our world. Learn how Northrop Grumman is actively working to minimize the environmental footprint of our operations.

The Lessons of Chernobyl Are Preventing Nuclear Disasters

 Enable targeting cookies to view this content.   Northrop Grumman engineers Josh Saunders and Mark Sakaguchi are programming a self-thinking quadcopter using cognitive automation, which will allow the vehicle to fly intelligently and respond quickly in emergencies and for disaster relief. This is just the beginning — unmanned aerial vehicle technology is evolving rapidly, and the possibilities are endless. The Future of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles As explained by Expert System, cognitive automation is neither machine learning nor pure artificial intelligence. It uses algorithms like natural language processing and data mining to bring ordered action in response to unstructured data. For example, the University of Pennsylvania developed unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) that fly through narrow spaces without guidance from a human pilot. According to Quartz, the tiny quadcopters use sensors that monitor their surroundings then adjust to squeeze through windows. Described by Harvard Business Review as the "internet of flying things," UAVs can capture high-resolution aerial images of construction sites, which are often missed by street observation and satellites. These images help architects check construction sites for deviations from the computer-aided design file. Other intelligent UAVs tackle routine but dangerous inspections so human don't have to undergo the risk, according to IBM. Inspection drones connected with IBM Watson IoT can autonomously plot flight paths between cell towers or wind turbines to look at a loose wire or corrosion and log the damage. Deloitte, in collaboration with Energia and IBM Maximo, flies robotic inspectors around wind farm turbines, enabling closer inspection without climbing ladders. Space exploration can also benefit from cognitive autonomy. Pushing the Limits Saunders and Sakaguchi see cognitive automation playing a role in disaster relief as well. Their quadcopter could map victim location and status before rescuers enter a burning building. "It's really interesting to get a machine to think for itself and to do what you want it to do," said Saunders. "It pushes my limits but also I get to have a lot of fun, too." Interested in pushing your limits (and having fun)? Check out the Northrop Grumman Careers page to find your next big opportunity.

Cognitive Automation: Drones for Disaster Relief

Regardless of which hemisphere you live in, you're likely to see year-round headlines announcing wildfires — in places like Europe, Canada and California — describing loss of life, property and habitat. The latest bushfires raging across Australia show a worrying pattern; forest fire season is earlier, longer and more intense. But why, and what is changing forest fire origin? How does a natural wildfire start and what are countries doing to prevent these disasters from happening? Australian Bush Fires Between December 2019 and the end of January 2020, bushfires burned more than 27.2 million acres (11 million hectares) in Australia, destroying more than 2,000 homes and resulting in 33 deaths. The BBC reported that authorities in New South Wales, the worst-hit state, ordered a state of emergency in areas south of Canberra. NASA satellite imagery in another BBC article showed smoke from the bushfires extending over the Pacific, reaching as far as South America. Vast tracts of land are burned, with fire destroying natural habitat and killing livestock and wildlife in its path. As with fires burning in the Amazon, loss of habitat seriously threatens diversity in the area as well as releasing abundant carbon stores locked up in the vegetation. The impact of this year's bushfires is not yet known, but Australia and other countries with high fire risk fund research into forest fire origin to develop prevention and protection strategies. How Does a Natural Wildfire Start? In most cases, natural wildfires start with a lightning strike; these go unnoticed in unpopulated areas and usually burn themselves out. The Canadian province of British Columbia estimates that lightning strikes account for approximately 60% of forest fires annually. Enough heat is released to set fire to trees and underbrush. Prolonged drought, insect infestation and increased temperatures create more dead and desiccated vegetation as fuel, and fires take hold more easily. According to CNN, high temperatures combined with high winds drove the Australian bushfires. However, in areas with urban interfaces where people, agriculture and property sit close to forest fuel, human causes also factor in. These include accidental ignition from using engines in dry grassland, discarding cigarette butts and campfires, but authorities also cope with deliberate acts of arson. Set Fire to Prevent Fire In answering the question — how does a natural wildfire start? — countries can use the information to develop strategies that both prevent and fight this hazard. Forest fire origin needs heat, oxygen and fuel for success; removing one of these quenches the fire and prevents spread. Climate change predicts increasing temperatures with longer drought periods that will affect two of these factors, so efforts that reduce fuel and create firebreaks are key. The Conversation notes that preparation is as important as response and recovery in managing wildfires. Removing underbrush mechanically, thinning forests and using prescribed burns all reduce fuel ahead of fire season. But without understanding the land and its vegetation, uncontrolled burning could set up worse conditions for the future. For this reason, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia is working closely with aboriginal knowledge holders to manage ecological niches. Managing and timing these burns encourages vegetation growth that supports habitat diversity and reduces future fire risk. Time describes how traditional ecological knowledge brings a new awareness of the seasons. Based on local animal activity, this close understanding of the land means that prescribed burning takes place as needed by each microregion rather than according to the calendar. This promotes growth of less flammable native vegetation rather than invasive species, which often burn more readily. Building Fire-Resilient Communities In terms of developing response strategies for managing wildfires, countries are also going high-tech to fight these fires. Research into vegetation mapping, remote surveillance by drone and satellite, and data sharing initiatives help crews on the ground. However, climate change isn't going away, so taking action to mitigate fires is crucial. For example, the United States Forest Service suggests that communities take responsibility to identify fire risks and create solutions for them by creating resilient structures and landscapes. These actions can help people live safely in the Wildland-Urban Interface. Resilient landscapes are only part of the solution. Ensuring reduced fuel, thinned forest and mechanically created firebreaks around habitations helps stop buildings burning and maintains safe evacuation routes, says the United States Forest Service. There are also steps homeowners and developers can take. Many municipal governments now include forest fire mitigation as part of city planning. The Resort Municipality of Whistler runs a Fire Smart program with property guidelines and services. This advises homeowners to reduce flammable vegetation through choosing fire-resistant planting and keep fuel away from outer walls. The U.S. Forestry Services advises making buildings more resistant to airborne embers by using materials with low flammability. For example, cedar shake roofing or sidings catch fire easily, and metal spark screens under eaves and deck space will stop embers. Understanding forest fire origin and a little DIY could help save your home.

Studying Forest Fire Origin for Prevention Strategies

 In a paper from California Institute of Technology's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the author laments the loss of connection between machine learning and solving real-world problems. The main question that seems to come up is: what good can machine learning or artificial intelligence (AI) do? A lot, as it turns out. AI could play a big role in aiding and even solving the issues of world hunger and poverty in ways that are surprisingly simple, but increasingly necessary.   AI's Natural Abilities Used in New Ways    When you think of AI, it's possible that fixing world hunger isn't the first application that comes to mind. However, when broken down to their most basic components, world issues need more of one thing: data. The right kind of data can help identify issues that impoverished regions face, which, in turn, can lead to solutions. Information processing and solution finding are the backbone of AI, and enlisting its help can generate the data required by global initiatives to identify regions in the greatest need of aid.    Global programs like the United Nations and World Bank have launched initiatives to reduce world hunger and poverty that need the massive amounts of data and analytics that AI technology can mine and sift through. The UN is developing strategies at conferences like AI for Good Global Summit to figure out how AI can help them fulfill their Sustainable Development Goals, while the World Bank is taking a more direct approach. They've partnered with Orbital Insight, a geospatial analysis company, to determine whether satellite data can improve ways of tracking poverty and socioeconomic trends globally.  Capturing images of distressed areas via satellite, for example, provides markers that measure how a village is doing. A team of scientists from Stanford University's Department of Earth System Science created a poverty mapping technique that uses satellite images to capture and measure luminosity levels to determine what potentially impoverished areas look like during the day and night. The daytime images highlight the homes, roads, cars and other aspects of the village to provide a baseline of how many people live there and what resources are nearby. If the population is sparse or the area is rural, less light in nighttime satellite images would be expected. However, if a village is well populated but has less electricity than expected, that can be an indicator of poverty.    Gathering this type of data could make it possible to pinpoint the areas most affected by poverty. Providing that information to humanitarian groups, NGOs and even governments could better equip them to deal with a region's unique issues.   In Times of Crisis ...    As smartphones gain popularity in the developing world, the possibilities for AI to contribute to struggling communities grow. Researchers from the Data Science Institute and Department of Computing at Imperial College in London developed an algorithm that can look at mobile data from users in a region to predict the gender of the user. When a disaster hits, those traceable demographics could potentially help identify and track the most vulnerable users (such as women with young children) and get aid to them faster, even in remote or dangerous areas.    Another method of tracking crisis victims combines smartphones with our innate human need to socialize or let our friends and family know when something is going on. Crisis-mapping technology uses social media, email and texts to identify and map areas where a natural disaster or other humanitarian crisis is happening. An open source software program created by researchers from the Qatar Computing Research Institute called Artificial Intelligence for Disaster Response (AIDR) collects and classifies tweets posted during an event. Using a keyword and tag tracker, this software marries machine learning and the natural human impulse to share and connect during times of crisis to create virtual maps that can show events as they are happening.   Enable targeting cookies to view this content.   Despite all of the good that planning, gathering data, and developing programs may do, helping those in crisis does require some on the ground (or in the sky) legwork. Humanitarian aid is an important part of the mission that the Northrop Grumman autonomous aircraft system Global Hawk has taken on. In 2013, it was able to find a safe zone for humanitarian aid during Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines using data collected through detailed imagery. It was also able to determine safe roads and fields to guide rescue teams to displaced survivors to get them help. In addition to being an "eye in the sky" for rescue missions, Global Hawk also supported requests from international partners to surveil areas of Haiti after the earthquake in 2010 and the Fukushima disaster in 2011.   AI and Humanity Entering the Future, Hand-in-Hand    Next steps for injecting AI and machine learning into humanitarian aid vary from collecting and developing crops that can adapt to a changing climate to drones and smartphone accessories that can deliver medical attention to remote areas. These methods aren't tactics being saved for a far-off future; they can happen right now. Jack Hidary, a serial tech entrepreneur and Senior Advisor to XLabs, told the Telegraph that "In low-income areas, agriculture and healthcare are two critical ecosystems that we can apply AI to immediately."    While the debate rages on about artificial intelligence and how it will affect the workforce of those in developed nations, those in developing nations could benefit from the intervention of technology into their lives. Partnerships between world health organizations and AI-driven initiatives like Orbital Insight, AIDR and Global Hawk show that the efforts to combat world hunger are becoming more focused. As AI technology evolves, its role in providing solutions and data to help combat world problems will grow, providing us with an insight into our world and society that we may have never seen without it.

World Hunger and Disaster Relief Are the Next Targets for Artificial Intelligence

In March 2018, one of Yellowstone National Park's 10,000 thermal features suddenly sprang back into action. After 34 years of sporadic activity, the world's tallest active geyser reawakened. Since then, Steamboat Geyser has delighted visitors with almost weekly eruptions. Although the reason for reawakening isn't known, a recent paper in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PNAS) reassuringly reports that it does not signal an imminent volcanic eruption.   World's Tallest Active Geyser Wakes Up  After only sporadic activity for 34 years, Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Basin of Yellowstone National Park woke up in March 2018. The National Park Service records of geyser activity since then show more than 100 instances at a median interval of just around 7 days, with all activity falling at intervals of roughly 3 to 35 days between events.  Driven by magma activity deep underground, geysers expel superheated water through fissures in the overlying rock layers. Steamboat's eruptions blast from two vents and last between 3 and 40 minutes. This is followed by steam venting, which NPR likens to standing next to a jet engine, and this can last from several hours to several days  What Woke Steamboat Up?  Because Steamboat Geyser sits on top of the massive Yellowstone supervolcano, the researchers wanted to find out why the activity had begun again. With it being only sporadically active historically, and with a gap of around 50 years recorded prior to a cluster of eruptions in the 1960s, finding out what pokes it into life is tricky.  Despite Yellowstone having a wealth of hydrothermal features, getting equipment into the precise location for continual data collection is difficult. However, recording techniques are becoming increasingly more sophisticated. The research team was able to access many different sources for their recent report, including GPS data and seismic data reaching back to 2003, according to Science News.  Even with all the data available, there was still no clear answer to what woke the geyser. GPS data showed the area did experience uplift from magma intrusion, which is what makes the Norris Basin rise and fall. Sensors also showed an increase in regional seismic activity with elevated radiant temperature from heated underground water reservoirs and rock spilling into the surrounding air. However, because none of the other geysers became more active during this period, the scientists discounted these as triggers. Likewise, as Smithsonian Magazine reports, the activity is not the precursor to a Yellowstone eruption.  What Controls Steamboat, and Why Is It the World's Tallest Geyser?  Scientists didn't find the trigger, but they did learn more about what might control the intervals between eruptions. Although precipitation and snowmelt didn't appear to trigger activity, data showed that the eruption cycles were longer in the summer. This suggests that groundwater accumulation might influence the geyser. It's also possible that the trigger for the uptick in activity is a change in local hydrothermal system conditions. As NPR notes, the ingredients for a geyser include water, heat and a structure that creates pressure by restricting flow. For example, rock porosity and permeability can affect the way that the superheated water escapes from the vents.  Steamboat isn't the oldest geyser in Yellowstone. Old Faithful has been venting for thousands of years, whereas Steamboat only let rip in 1878, according to PNAS. However, during their analysis, the research team discovered an interesting fact that could explain why it is the world's tallest. Steamboat's water reserves lie deeper under the surface. This means that not only is the water hotter because it's closer to the underlying magma, but it's also at a greater pressure.  Geysers as Simplified Volcanoes  Analysis of the data hasn't answered all the questions, but understanding more about geysers and how they are triggered could help volcanologists understand magmatic volcanoes. As The New York Times notes, geysers are simplified volcanoes. Better forecasting could help to predict volcanic and hydrothermal activity.  Regardless of the lack of conclusion, the scientists behind the PNAS paper describe the results as "a window into multiphase hydrothermal systems." They note that further studies could provide insight into this kind of activity here on Earth as well as in off-world situations, such as those seen on Saturn's moon, Enceladus.  Meanwhile, a quick glance at the data from Geyser Times is enough to show that Steamboat Geyser is still wide awake.   

Steamboat Geyser Wakes Up: Is the Yellowstone Supervolcano Next?

In September 2017, we saw more superstorm hurricanes hit North America than usual, including hurricanes Harvey, Irma, Jose, Katia and Maria. This is the only time in history — except for 2007 — that multiple Category 5 hurricanes have hit North America in the period of a year, let alone a month, said the The Atlantic. Research shows that more superstorms — defined as large, destructive storms — will occur every few centuries in a stable climate. However, according According to the NCA and Science News, as Earth's temperatures increase, the intensity and duration of these superstorms may get worse as a result.  As these storms hit harder and harder, many of us are left with big questions like: What is the outlook for weather patterns in the coming years? Can we expect more superstorms ahead? And how can we prepare for those superstorms? The Research The scientific jury is still out on whether or not increasing temperatures will increase the frequency of superstorms. However, according to Skeptical Science, scientists are certain that when these superstorms do occur, the effects of climate change will make the impact of these storms more pronounced. "As the world warms, evaporation speeds up. So on avg there's more water vapour for a storm to sweep up & dump now, compared to 70 years ago," climate scientist Katharine Hayhoe tweeted in the wake of Harvey. In a Nature article, several scientists explained that storm thermodynamics are strongly dependent on the climate. The world's rising temperatures and sea levels have in turn changed the intensity, path and location of the storms we have experienced and will experience. Climate Central also notes that severe downpours are now more likely, leading to increased flooding. PreventionWeb's 2016 Annual Global Climate and Catastrophe Report showed that financial damages from natural disasters are rising worldwide. After Hurricane Sandy hit in 2012, Gary Lackmann, an atmospheric science professor at North Carolina State University, became interested in predicting future storms. He mapped the features of Sandy into the future and into the past, taking into account changing temperatures and humidity. In an American Meteorology Society paper titled "Hurricane Sandy before 1990 and after 2100," Lackmann explained that by using mathematically simulated computer models, he could see that an 1880 version of Sandy was similar to 2012's Sandy. However, due to changing temperatures and rising humidity, Lackmann found that a 2100 version of Sandy would be much, much worse. It would hit further inland with more intensity, causing more damages. Several other studies, including one from PNAS, have confirmed this finding about Sandy. How to Prepare John Holdren, Obama's presidential adviser, famously said that when it comes to changing climates, we will end up with a future that holds a mix of prevention, adaption and suffering. It is up to us to determine the ratio of these pieces. Through home preparation and awareness, we can prevent certain damages. When storms are about to hit, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) recommends taking necessary precautions in your own home: "Coastal and inland residents should ensure that their families have an emergency plan and emergency kits in their homes and cars," FEMA experts recommend. "Some of the items in a basic emergency kit include: one gallon of water per person per day, for drinking and sanitation; at least a three-day supply of non-perishable food; battery-powered radio and a NOAA Weather Radio; flashlight and extra batteries; and First Aid kit." Through mitigation, we can attempt to limit greenhouse gases. The National Park Service recommends using renewable energy when possible and getting a home energy audit, if you're a home owner. Spending less time on the road and using energy-saving light bulbs are easy ways to reduce carbon emissions, according to the National Park Service. Finally, if we cannot mitigate or prevent damages, we can adjust to climate change. Some scientists have built tools that allow them to predict future superstorms, while other people are moving away from high-flood areas. As history has shown, human beings are designed for adaption.

Are There More Superstorms in Our Future?

Tsunamis, Hurricanes, Eruptions: Predicting a Natural Disaster

On August 14, 2021, a magnitude 7.2 earthquake struck western Haiti, causing massive damage and significant loss of life. With relief efforts for the Haiti earthquake underway, the country is slowly digging out and moving on, but the scale and impact of the disaster are raising questions about how we can better prepare for and respond to these events. One potential solution is before-and-after satellite images. A Country in Crisis Haiti has seen more than its fair share of hard times. In 2010, the country endured a magnitude 7.0 earthquake, and it's spent the last decade trying to rebuild. Ongoing political instability has made difficult economic conditions even worse, and immediately after the earthquake, the nation was battered by Tropical Storm Grace. The country is also facing a substantial doctor shortage, with only a handful of physicians available for the millions of people in the Les Cayes region alone. As of September 24, 2021, Haiti has reported more than 2,200 deaths and over 12,000 earthquake-related injuries. Hardest hit were the areas of Les Cayes and Jé©ré©mie, with some 50,000 homes destroyed and 77,000 damaged. Also damaged or destroyed were 20 schools, 25 health centers and 60 places of worship. This most recent Haiti earthquake likely occurred along the same fault line as the 2010 quake, and its impacts were felt as far away as Jamaica. Assessing the Impact Satellite images of affected areas before and after the quake show the full extent of the damage. As Space notes, images captured in January 2020 and again on August 15, 2021 show hotels, cathedrals and hospitals before and after, and while some are now partially collapsed, others have been reduced entirely to rubble. Imagery from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) offers a different look at the impact. Using interferometric synthetic aperture radar images from the ESA's Copernicus Sentinal-1A Satellite, teams from JPL and the California Institute of Technology created a deformation map of the Earth's surface. The false-color map shows permanent surface movement caused by the quake. Areas in blue moved toward the satellite (upward and eastward), while those in red moved away (downward and westward). The star represents the epicenter of the quake, which traveled west along the existing fault line. Areas of dark blue and red represent the most movement in the Earth's surface. Near the epicenter, the Earth moved 16 inches (40.64 cm) toward the satellite, while farther west, movement away reached up to eight inches (20.32 cm). Ongoing analysis of this data also paves the way for better understanding of specific fault characteristics, such as depth and direction, which may provide more accurate earthquake modeling over time. Evaluating the Risk The use of satellite imaging in disaster response isn't new, and as the Humanitarian Practice Network (HPN) points out, imagery can have a significant impact on both tsunami and earthquake response. Increased satellite image resolution and GPS accuracy can make these space-based solutions invaluable in efforts to evaluate both pre-quake and post-quake risk. When it comes to pre-quake preparation, images could be used to identify areas of higher risk, especially around known fault lines. Regular evaluation of existing infrastructure and support structures offers the potential for proactive response that could help countries better prepare for potential impacts. Long-term image analysis could also reveal trends in quake behavior along common fault lines (such as direction and severity), allowing governments to better focus any preemptive response. On the post-quake side, these images offer a way to asses areas of increased risk. For example, continual imaging may reveal ongoing surface movement that could indicate aftershocks or a potential second quake, in turn helping first responders prioritize people in those areas. Analysis may also show damage to buildings or roadway infrastructure that could pose problems for rescue crews. Large buildings on the verge of collapse could be avoided in route planning, and detours could be mapped out to limit the chance of teams getting stuck and needing rescue themselves. Preparing for the Worst One of the most pressing problems in disaster recovery efforts is empowering first responder teams with accurate and up-to-date information about where they're going and what challenges they may face. With typical communications channels often out-of-service, radio and cellular frequencies can get overwhelmed, leaving aide efforts with limited ability to connect in real-time. High resolution satellite imaging offers a way for teams to see what they may encounter before they start their journey from relief camps. For example, post-earthquake analysis could show blocked roads or collapsed bridges, helping first responders pinpoint specific areas that have suffered major damage. Equipped with these images, workers can make informed choices about which vehicles to drive and what supplies to bring, and they can also more accurately judge how long trips may take based on current conditions. Eyes in the Sky Despite advancements in seismic sensor and satellite technologies, predicting and responding to earthquakes isn't an exact science. Quakes can occur without warning and cause widespread destruction that puts both residents and rescuers at risk. The use of satellite imagery, however, can help teams reduce their risk on the ground and increase their ability to quickly reach those who need their help. Being on the forefront of change, especially regarding space, physics and engineering, has been part of the Northrop Grumman culture for generations. Click here to search jobs in these areas of scientific innovation.

The Haiti Earthquake: How Before-and-After Satellite Images Could Improve Disaster Response

Once again, wildfire season in North America and across Europe made the headlines this summer. Burning through vast tracts of land, the seemingly uncontrollable blazes engulfed property and took lives. According to Vox, by August, wildfires burned around 6.9 million acres in the United States. Those numbers have continued to grow, with massive fires in Northern California and near Los Angeles this November. One of those, the Camp Fire, was the deadliest in state history, killing at least 84 people. In 2017, wildfires caused around $10 billion in damage. With climate change promising hotter, drier extended fire seasons, it's important to develop wildfire technologies for an effective disaster response. Advances in wildfire technologies and disaster communications solutions are helping to optimize efforts and also keep personnel working in dangerous conditions safe. Satellite and Drone Surveillance  Managing crews on the ground is difficult when fire spreads at alarming speeds. Having a bigger overall picture helps, and this is where observational data from satellites and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) helps disaster response. Equipped with an array of sensing equipment, these machines can peer through thick smoke to get an accurate picture. Wired described how Natural Resources Canada used a fleet of 178 mini satellites nicknamed "Doves" this year to keep tabs from above on the country's forests this year. The system, which is still in development, relayed observations back to a central monitoring station to alert disaster responders to the location. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory is also working on a similar system. Orbiting thermal sensors will be able to spot fires once they reach only 35 feet in spread and within 15 minutes of ignition. Data Sharing Although it seems a good idea, remote firefighting is not practical. The water bombers and aircraft dropping fire retardant each play a role, but it's the firefighters on the ground who push wildfires back. Being able to see what is going on at the front line helps manage the overall disaster response, but reports are usually delayed since firefighters often work far from central command. Advances in wildfire technologies help deliver the updates in real time; the San Francisco Chronicle described an app that enables image and text sharing from crews on the ground. Network World reported on helmet cams that bring hands-free front-line imaging back to control rooms. In signal dead spots, Motherboard described how suborbital drones flying above water bomber flight paths act as cell towers in the sky to relay the data. Emergency response companies are also leveraging the "internet of things" to capture rich data and location information from distressed callers using smartphones or other internet-enabled devices. Northrop Grumman recently integrated RapidSOS NG911 Clearinghouse technology into its computer-aided dispatch products. This provides firefighters and other first responders with advanced location information, letting them respond more quickly, avoiding unnecessary risks and potentially saving more lives. Wildfire Technologies for Firefighter Safety From low-tech solutions such as tool design to space tech for shelters, wildfire technologies are advancing to make life easier and safer fighting fires. The San Francisco Chronicle described how simply lengthening the handle of a Pulaski — a tool used to clear vegetation — makes it easier to use so firefighters tire less easily. NASA-developed tents can also be used as portable fire shelters to help crews on the disaster response front line. Using heat shield technology developed to protect spacecraft during the intense heat of re-entry, firefighters will be able to deploy the shelters when unable to escape the path of a fire. When smoke is too intense for overhead drones to pierce, infrared sensing picks up hot spots, and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) can map out terrain, according to Digital Journal. Mitigating Future Impact Climate change makes wildfires more likely due to change in weather patterns, vegetation growth and parasite infestation. Wildfires contribute to the cycle by releasing carbon stores into the atmosphere. They also release fine particulates in smoke that cause respiratory distress in vulnerable individuals. Effects can be widespread; the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reported that smoke from this year's wildfires in British Columbia on the west coast of Canada traveled eastwards and was detected as far away as Ireland. Air advisories across the southwestern province kept many indoors from mid-August. While opinion on preventing wildfires varies, wildfire technologies may play a role in forestry management to reduce fuel sources and urban planning that keeps properties away from risk interfaces. Digital Journal described how LiDAR imaging can map out vegetation and potential fuel sources in and under the forest canopy while satellite information gives information on fire prone and resistant areas. Combining these data with predictive modeling could help both manage forests to minimize fires and also keep people from building in wildfire risk areas.

Wildfire Technologies Putting out Flames

Every planet has a past. Earth's geologic history lives in layers, shifting beneath mountain peaks and fallen forests, retreating rivers and rising seas. While we dig for evidence of where we came from, the forces that formed our world billions of years ago continue to churn, burn and make themselves known. With every volcanic blast and earthquake, we understand more about our planet.   In the spirit of discovery, researchers have longed to carry out seismic studies on other planets. However, the opportunity to answer fundamental questions, like, "Are there earthquakes on Mars?", or marsquakes, was rare — until recently.   Looking Into Mars' Layers   True to its name, since it arrived on the scene, the Mars InSight lander has been literally looking into what's going on inside the fourth planet from the sun. InSight is short for Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport. It arrived on Mars in a neatly packed, 789-pound (358-kilogram) bundle on November 26, 2018. The landing site near Elysium Mons is known for landslides, evidence of which can be seen from orbit, and two long, shallow trenches around 1,000 kilometers long.  On Earth, such enormous formations are usually caused by geologic activity. Abundant evidence gathered from spacecraft, as well as ground-based telescopes, points to Mars being geologically active in its distant past. Mars is, after all, home to the largest known volcano in the solar system. Soil samples collected by robotic explorers indicate that Martian volcanoes were active as recently as 180 millions years ago — a blink of an eye in geologic time.   The question is: Is Mars still active, with a beating planet heart somewhere beneath the swirling dust and broken, dry lake beds? Are there earthquakes on Mars? Is the core molten or silent and dead?   The answer is yes to all of the above. Geologically speaking, the fourth planet from the sun is very much alive and kicking. Marsquakes rock the surface, subsurface and deep interior of our planetary neighbor. These quakes, while they may appear similar to earthquakes, are motivated by slightly different forces.   Earthquakes vs. Marsquakes   Earthquakes occur as our tectonic plates float on the mantle, colliding and slipping past each other. Quakes on Mars are a result of the entire planet contracting as it cools from its initial formation more than four billion years ago.  It's also believed that, though there is no spinning dynamo in Mars' heart to generate a planet-wide magnetic field, magma exists beneath the surface. When the magma moves upward, it creates pressure that pulses through the surface in the form of seismic waves. This form of magmatism can create pressure waves detectable by InSight's external seismometer, the Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS), the first of its kind to reside in the open on the surface of another planet.   What We've Learned   The moving and shaking going on beneath Mars' breathtaking landscape in the last year has taught us much about the planet's past and present. In July 2021, multiple marsquakes of different sizes allowed planetary scientists to accurately gauge that the core of Mars may still be molten. The scientists running the InSight project have also noticed more quakes happen on the night side of the planet, when cooler temperatures make it easier for the ground to contract. Then, on September 18, a quake larger and longer than any felt before rolled right into SEIS.   SEIS supposedly can hear the tiniest movements, including the shaking of a hydrogen atom. Hearing so exquisitely sensitive has been hardly necessary during this mission. As it turns out, Mars has plenty of high-volume activity, even without the marsquakes. Meteorite strikes, wind, dust devils and landslides all make sounds that SEIS can detect and send back to Earth. Then, as if in celebration of InSight's 1,000th Sol on Mars, a marsquake not only occurred during the day but also lasted for a full hour and a half.   At magnitude 4.2 on the Richter scale, the September event was one of three marsquakes over 4.0 detected since the beginning of August 2021. This quake was unlike many others InSight has detected since 2018. It didn't come from Cerberus Fossae, home of the two mysterious rifts in the Martian soil that made it seem likely that Mars was still geologically active. It didn't come from Elysium Planitia, where InSight is permanently parked. Instead, it came from far away, possibly as far as Valles Marineris, on the other side of the planet. Quakes that pass through an entire planet can provide an unparalleled look into what a world is made of: core, mantle, crust and all the layers in-between.   "Are there earthquakes on Mars?" was answered definitely when InSight detected its first quake on April 6, 2019. Between then and now, all the moving and shaking has allowed humankind to confirm the depth of Mars' crust, the size of its mantle (969 miles/1,560 kilometers below the surface) and the size of its molten core. Compared to how many decades it took us to measure the Moon's core (four) and the Earth's core (dozens), it seems as though humanity's insight into planetary science has taken a giant, if shaky, leap forward.   Interested in all things outer space and exploration? We are, too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.  

Rocking and Rolling: Mega Marsquakes Shake Up Planetary Science

In 2018, Kilauea had its largest eruption in centuries. Because the volcano, which is located on the big island of Hawai'i, is easily accessible, it's closely monitored by scientists. During this massive volcanic eruption, scientists from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) were able to collect data on what was occurring. They discovered that this eruption was so much larger than usual because of a particular seismic event. According to a new study published in Nature, the collapse of Kilauea's caldera likely occurred because of the volcano's vents. Understanding Caldera Collapse When a volcano eruption occurs, sometimes a large depression, known as a caldera, will form. According to National Geographic, this happens because the magma inside the volcano provides support to the sides. After a volcano erupts, the magma chamber empties, eliminating that support. The sides of the volcano can collapse inward, forming a caldera. This can happen in an instant, with a violent eruption, or more slowly, as is the case with the caldera in the Kilauea volcano on Hawai'i. When scientists Alberto Roman and Paul Lundgren at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory looked at the data coming out of Kilauea's massive 2018 eruption, they wanted to know why it was the volcano's largest in over 200 years. They were also interested in what specific mechanisms caused it. The answer to the first question was relatively easy — the volcano eruption was so large due to caldera collapse. As the caldera fell into the volcano, the large block of rocks became stuck inside the volcano, building the pressure inside. According to Scientific American, during the 2018 volcano eruption at Kilauea, scientists were directly able to connect increases in lava flow from the building pressure to the eventual collapse of the caldera. The effects were seen within minutes of collapse up to 40 kilometers away from the volcano, and the "pressure pulses" created surges in lava flow that lasted for hours. What Triggers Caldera Collapse? The more difficult question, though, is what actually are the mechanisms that trigger the collapse of the caldera? According to a study published in Science, the Kilauea caldera collapsed after a very "small fraction" of the magma within the volcano was evacuated. This means that volcanoes don't need the magma chamber to be anywhere close to empty before calderas collapse. How, then, can we evaluate the mechanisms of what conditions lead to caldera collapse? It's an important question because it will allow scientists to better predict how forceful a volcanic eruption will be. It can also assist in better understanding the levels of lava flow and how large the rift zone — which are the weak points of the volcano through which lava can erupt — will be. Understanding the mechanisms of caldera collapse will help scientists understand the short-, medium- and long-term effects of volcano eruptions, especially in populated areas around the volcano. Kilauea is a shield volcano, which means that it is large, gently sloping and forms the shape of a shield. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, these volcanoes not only erupt at the summit, but they can also erupt in multiple of the aforementioned rift zones that radiate out from the summit and join together as they flow outward. The scientists at NASA's JPL were able to put together a model of collapse based on the data from the 2018 eruption. They found that these rift zone vents, which are openings within the volcano's structure further down from the caldera, were the culprit. As lava flowed through these vents, the magma was released. The caldera collapsed after it lost this support structure during the volcano eruption. The rock falling into the magma chamber subsequently pressurized the lava flow, creating pressure pulses that increased the severity of the eruption. Life-Saving Science Knowing what triggers the collapse of a volcano's caldera is crucial, especially in heavily populated regions such as the area around Kilauea on Hawai'i. "If we see an eruption at a low-elevation vent, that is a red flag or warning that caldera collapse is possible," said Alberto Roman in the NASA release. "Similarly, if we detect earthquakes consistent with the slipping of the caldera rock block, we now know that the eruption will likely be much larger than usual." If scientists can predict the severity of an eruption, that means they can let officials know if evacuations are needed — helping local populations prepare and potentially saving lives. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery in science, technology and engineering.

Scientists Just Discovered a Hidden Force Behind Volcanic Eruption

The Amazon is burning, with more than 10,000 square miles alight across both Brazil and Bolivia. As noted by Time, the destruction is clearly evident from space — satellites and astronauts are watching the Amazon forest fires, "sending back images of white smoke from the burning jungle streaming east over the Atlantic—pictures that would be beautiful if their implications weren't so ugly." And while ongoing coverage highlights specific aspects of this environmental disaster, prioritizing the bigger picture is problematic in a world of curated messaging, crunchy soundbites and continually-churning news stories. From fundamental ecological importance to long-term global impact, here's why the Amazon blaze demands our attention — and how innovations in firefighting technology could help manage future disasters at scale. Supply and Demand It's often repeated but isn't true: The Amazon does not produce 20% of the world's oxygen. Instead, the rainforest is responsible for something even more important: According to National Geographic, it "contributes around 20 percent of the oxygen produced by photosynthesis on land." Most of this oxygen supply is consumed by the trees, plants and micro-organisms of the Amazon itself — with more than 80,000 known plant species living in the rainforest, this self-sustaining oxygen mechanism is critical for their survival. The Amazon is also an in-demand habitat for approximately 10% of all species worldwide, including more than 2.5 million insect types, 3,000 species of fish and over 400 mammal species. Nutrients produced by biological processes help sustain the forest, even as it provides shelter, hunting and breeding grounds for these animals. Loss of rainforest real estate forces significant ecological shifts that could result in substantial population shifts or large-scale extinction of plant and animal species — species that aren't found anywhere else in the world. Conservation of Energy Beyond the loss of habitat and species, growing Amazon forest fires represent a substantial ecological threat: massive carbon release. In a recent interview with The Harvard Gazette, Amazon expert Brian Farrell, director of the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, noted that "the Amazon's storage of carbon is substantial enough to change the world climate if it were released into the atmosphere." For Farrell, if fires continue to burn out of control, the potential for massive carbon outflux makes this "a local problem of global significance." According to The Conversation, continued deforestation due to deliberately-set and natural wildfires can also cause local climate change. Recent research found that "disturbed" forest areas experienced annual temperature increases of 0.44 degrees Celsius more than neighboring intact forests, which "equates to approximately half of the warming seen in the region over the last 60 years." This problem is more pronounced in the dry season, when temperature differences of 1.5 degrees were observed between intact and disturbed forests. Along with failing tree populations as temperatures exceed their tolerances, small-scale agriculture will become significantly more difficult for local indigenous groups. Manipulation, Mitigation and Migration While the scope and severity of Amazon forest fires is daunting, new firefighting technologies could help limit the impact of similar blazes next year or manage other large-scale disasters. Current areas of innovation include:   Data Manipulation: Government agencies can use technologies like IoT-enabled sensors and smartphones, orbiting satellites and short-range drones to create more accurate models of fire intensity, impact and potential expansion. This could allow firefighting teams to better coordinate their efforts and limit overall spread.  Digital Mitigation: Advanced robotics may soon make it possible to directly fight fires with reduced risk to human lives. Work on high-powered drones that can carry heavy water hoses and fight fires at night is already underway, while humanoid robot technologies such as Walk-Man offer the potential to both douse fires directly and send data back to emergency personnel. Physical firefighting gear is also getting an upgrade with devices like the C-Thru — a futuristic helmet that provides digitally-projected room temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide data along with thermal imaging cameras to provide sight lines through heavy smoke.  Orbital Migration: As noted by Scientific American, space-based solutions may help post-fire rainforest recovery. For example, fertilizer developed for use on the ISS could be used to spur plant regrowth in the Amazon — designed with a polymer coating for slow release of nutrients and reduced run-off, it could help replace critical plant life with causing a secondary ecological collapse. Also a potential option? Controlled growth in orbital facilities until ground conditions stabilize. The highly-regulated nature of orbital environments allows precise delivery of nutrients, water and light, allowing them to act as effective incubators of critical Amazon species until we (hopefully) restore some semblance of order.  Disaster of Scale The Amazon is burning. It's a disaster of scale and substance, one that carries serious implications for the future of both local ecosystems and our environment at large. From massive carbon sinks to missing species, this rainforest removal presents a real risk for Earth. While widespread shifts in government policy and human perception are critical for long-term improvement, continued innovation of firefighting technology could help limit the immediate impact of Amazon forest fires.

Amazon Forest Fires: Ecological Impact Demands Innovation

Climate change research predicts that we may experience more extreme weather. As the planet warms, increased water evaporation could drive wilder weather, increasing storm frequency and/or intensity. With sophisticated weather technology, climate scientists aim to handle these changes through better prediction or even by manipulating storms before they wreak havoc. More precise data is needed as weather prediction improves, which is why weather technology is looking to space with tools such as satellites and other eye-in-the-sky capabilities.   Here Is the Weather News   At the start of the last century, weather prediction science could let you know fairly accurately what to wear for work the next day. More than 100 years later, the range for long-term forecasting reaches beyond five days and is still advancing, according to The New Yorker. Advanced mapping and data collection meant that residents in the path of the hurricane had around a week to watch and prepare as Hurricane Harvey barreled along.   Being prepared plays a huge role in managing the effects of extreme weather; with advance warning, local authorities are able to provide emergency coverage and move vulnerable residents to safety, minimizing loss of life and structural damage.   Weather Sensing   Data plays a big part in forecasting, feeding into more sophisticated modeling that helps scientists and disaster management agencies understand what to expect. Current technology means that researchers can measure what's happening in the middle of a storm from the protected radar arrays that monitor tornado activity, or as a global picture from farther away.   Satellites. NASA and other agencies operate both geostationary and orbiting earth-observing satellites. The New Yorker describes sensor technology from high above us that monitors developing weather patterns and collects data on humidity, wind speed, temperature and more that feed into increasingly complex simulation models.   Space Weather Sensing. Sensor technology helps gather data on space weather. NASA explained how improved low Earth orbit arrays let scientists learn how solar activity influences our climate.   Global Hawk. Some retired Northrop Grumman Global Hawks are setting off on a new mission. These unmanned aerial vehicles, repurposed from military surveillance by NASA, take part in weather patrol. Wired explained how a high-altitude vantage point, coupled with extensive range and duration ability, means that a Global Hawk UAV is an excellent tool for long-term monitoring. Gathering data for a few hours or a few days gives meteorologists information critical to enhance weather models and make them more accurate.   Weather Manipulation   Spotting weather patterns is one thing, but there's also weather technology that lets us change it by manipulating clouds. Cloud seeding isn't just science fiction, it's an advancing field in weather technology, both in making it rain and for storm control. Seeding a cloud with glaciogenic or hygroscopic agents such as silver iodide encourages fatter droplet formation and, thus, rain.   Cloud seeding also shows potential for storm suppression. Chemical and Engineering News described how silver iodide seeding reduced hail storm severity over Alberta by 27 percent. Although in theory seeding should work for other storms by altering the precipitation status in clouds, results for hurricane suppression were less impressive, as reported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.   UAVs Sensing and Seeding   Problems with cloud seeding, however, include the ability to tell which cloud is the right one to seed and determining the best time to do it. Combining UAV sensing with the ability to deliver cloud seeding with precision could help, bringing cognitive automation to enhance process. A review in Atmospheric Research suggested that using drones to prospect clouds and then deliver seeding precisely into the most receptive areas could push the success of this weather technology. In the future, weather technology could both predict and banish the clouds with accuracy.    —    —    — 

Weather Technology To Outpace Storms

Analysts at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration predicted a busier-than-average hurricane season in 2017, and they certainly hit the mark, according to the Los Angeles Times. These heavy-hitting storms left communities reeling in their wake and prompted important questions regarding hurricane predictions.   2018 may bring another active Atlantic hurricane season, according to New Scientist. Combined with ongoing impact from global climate change, weather prediction technology is more critical than ever — improved outcomes demand input from current tools and real-time data from tech advancements combined with expert interpretation.   What GOES Around Comes Around   Hurricanes Harvey, Irma and Maria caused devastating, long-term damage. As noted by The Balance, Harvey caused around $180 billion worth of damage, Irma cost the economy at least $100 billion and the storm in Puerto Rico left $85 billion of insurance claims in its wake. Can hurricane prediction tools prevent this from happening again?     NOAA's National Hurricane Center — Provides tropical storm and hurricane forecasts and warnings to help mitigate the impact of large storms. Recent technological advances have also helped the cause, like the GOES-16 satellite. CNBC said GOES-16 makes it possible to see hurricanes and other storms in their formative stages, which helps weather forecasters stay up-to-date. "From its constant perch over the Western Hemisphere, GOES-16 is already helping meteorologists issue more accurate and earlier warnings for severe thunderstorms, tornadoes, flooding and hurricanes because of its greater resolution and faster refresh than previous GOES satellites," said The Washington Post.  Super Computing — As noted by CNBC, the National Weather Service has invested substantially in supercomputing to gain three-fold processing power, in turn reducing storm tracking and location error rates. According to Phys.org, NOAA tracked hurricane Harvey to within 100 nautical miles (185,200 m) — an impressive feat considering the scope of the hurricane.  Eyes in the Sky — With the capability to fly over severe weather and achieve high altitudes for up to 30 hours straight, intelligence gathered by Northrop Grumman's Global Hawk UAV has helped civilian authorities assess storm strength and direction and plan next steps for warnings and disaster relief. In partnership with NASA and NOAA, the Global Hawk UAV has been used to track hurricane intensification for the Eastern Pacific Origins and Characteristics of Hurricanes Program.  IoT Sensors — As noted by Recode, wind farms in Norway have already started using sensors to monitor the status of 400-foot-high (122 m) wind turbines for damage or performance degradation. Similarly, sensors could be attached to physical structures or on-site machinery to measure the impact of hurricane-force winds or rain. There's a double benefit here: Companies gain continual assessment of risk, and employees aren't put in danger checking the integrity of outside structures.    Intersecting Interests   While technology remains a critical aspect of weather prediction, The Washington Post points out that a tech-first approach only takes forecasting so far. Better outcomes mean taking a "mission-first" approach where end-user needs drive the development of new technology. For example, civil authorities want more time to warn residents they may need to evacuate, while homeowners want some kind of quantifiable data about risk to their property. Mission-driven goals can help set the stage for new technology development.   Forecasters are also still critical to weather prediction, as noted by David Novak, director of the NWS's Weather Prediction Center. "'Models and observations are the base infrastructure that allows human forecasters to do better forecasts,'" he said. This follows a similar trend in business: internet of things tools, analytics and automation are essential elements to improve ROI, but can't deliver ideal outcomes without human oversight.   The same is true of hurricane predictions — improved weather prediction technology can refine modeling and evaluation processes, but the experience and expertise of weather scientists remains critical to translate hard data into actionable outcomes. 

Hurricane Predictions: Tracking the Impact of New Tech

An underwater volcano in the Tonga archipelago unleashed a tsunami that pushed towering waves onto the coasts of Australia and Japan and smaller ones toward Alaska and California.   Closer to its crater, the volcano turned the Pacific Island nation of 100,000 people upside down. At least three people died, more than 1,500 are displaced, hundreds of homes were destroyed, telecommunications were severed, and the United Nations has warned of potential food shortages.   While Tonga rebuilds, scientists are studying the factors that caused this natural disaster and are already amazed by certain findings — including how the volcano caused a massive aboveground explosion that typically doesn't follow an underwater volcano eruption. Their research could offer new clues into volcanic forces and confirm what's already been theorized.   A Low Simmer or a Big Bang   More than 70% of volcanic eruptions happen underwater. Yet, despite their frequency, much of how underwater volcanoes behave eludes scientists. They are simply too deep in the ocean to observe closely.   All volcanic eruptions, underwater and above ground, follow a foundational blueprint. The molten rock underneath Earth's surface, also known as magma, will rise from either a terrestrial surface or the ocean floor. The magma's dissolved gases form bubbles as the pressure of the molten rock wanes during its ascent. When those gases suddenly release, a volcano can release an explosion of hot magma, which technically becomes lava upon eruption.   But, as the U.S. Geological Survey points out, not all volcanic eruptions are explosive. If magma is "thin and runny," gases escape and flow out of a volcano without destructive fanfare. Lava will thus move slowly enough for people to evacuate. When magma is "thick and sticky," gases don't escape, and pressure boils. Big eruptions can blast magma straight into the air. It then falls apart into pieces called tephra, which can be as small as particles of ash or as large as house-sized boulders.   Eruptions of terrestrial volcanoes can be mesmerizing to watch — unless you're close by. Think of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington state, when a powerful blast knocked off the mountain's north face and caused a massive landslide. Or, if you're a real history buff, visualize the power of the A.D. 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which leveled Pompeii and other Roman towns and left enough evidence for scientists to study to this day — including the recent finding of the skeleton of a man who might have been running away from the blast.   A volcano can produce tsunamis as high as those produced by the largest earthquakes, according to the International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC). The ITIC offers a prominent example of a terrestrial volcano triggering a tsunami: the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa in Indonesia. This volcano pushed lava into the Pacific Ocean and caused 120-foot waves, with the tsunami and eruption itself killing more than 36,000 people.   For an underwater (or submarine) volcano to make an impression above ground, it has to produce a massive blast to overcome the weight of the sea. As Smithsonian explains, magma faces the pressure of tons and tons of ocean water once it reaches the seafloor. Not only that, but seawater also vaporizes when it meets magma at 800 degrees Celsius, expanding into a steam that is powerful enough to tear apart lava. Still, under certain conditions, magma can solidify and create the sort of eruption seen and felt in Tonga.   Capturing Attention Across the World   The two islands that comprise the terrestrial surroundings of the underwater volcano in Tonga — named Hunga-Ha'apai and Hunga-Tonga — peek out roughly 328 feet above sea level. The volcano's immensity is evident underneath the sea at more than 5,900 feet tall and more than 12 miles wide.   As The Conversation reports, it is not uncommon for an underwater volcano eruption here to escape notice. Hunga-Tonga—Hunga-Ha'apai has blown regularly over the past few decades, with blasts much smaller in scale than the one in January. A few eruptions in the past 13 years released hot jets of steam and magma bursts through waves, but the eruption this year was the type of massive explosion the volcano produces only once every thousand years or so.   "This is a preliminary estimate, but we think the amount of energy released by the eruption was equivalent to somewhere between four to 18 megatons of TNT," Jim Garvin, chief scientist at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, told the agency's Earth Observatory. "That number is based on how much was removed, how resistant the rock was, and how high the eruption cloud was blown into the atmosphere at a range of velocities." As a benchmark comparison, the blast released hundreds of times the equivalent mechanical energy of the Hiroshima nuclear explosion.   Earth Observatory compiled other remarkable scientific observations of the January 15 eruption that caused atmospheric shock waves and tsunami waves to travel around the world:     An immense plume of material created what's known as an umbrella cloud. It had crescent-shaped bow shock waves, a vast number of lightning strikes and extended as much as about 300 miles in diameter.  A small amount of ash and gas might have spread upward as high as 24.7 miles, the highest volcanic plume ever measured by NASA's Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation.  The eruption injected about 0.4 teragrams of sulfur dioxide into Earth's upper atmosphere, but scientists believe it might not pose harm such as cooling global temperatures, because the threshold for climate impacts is about five teragrams.    While many islands in the Tonga archipelago are uninhabited, some of the populated ones were heavily damaged by the eruption and subsequent tsunami. According to NPR, coral reefs around the atolls were also damaged, and ash covered Nomuka Island, which is about 40 miles northeast of the volcano. Not only did waves flood locales in Tonga, but they also went up to three feet high in Hawaii and arrived in small bursts in mainland U.S.   Fifty-three detectors around the world, including as far away as Antarctica, recorded the low-frequency boom from the explosion as it traveled through the atmosphere. It was the loudest event the network of sensors had detected in more than 20 years of operation.   Rebuilding and Learning From the Tonga Volcano   It will probably take years for the people of Tonga to pick up the pieces. The United Nations reports that 84,000 residents — more than 80% of the population — were affected by the eruption, with as many as 70% of households either losing livestock, contending with damaged grazing land or overcoming contaminated water supplies.   Scientists will undoubtedly continue studying the event and how the eruption of submarine volcanoes affect Earth's atmosphere and overall environment. They also need to determine if this was the volcano's last big blast in some time or if there are more soon to come.   Hunga-Ha'apai and Hunga-Tonga might find the hope that surfaced after the volcano Tagoro wiped away aquatic life in the Canary Islands. Lava kills marine life, but a study by oceanographers found that within three years of the 2011 eruption of Tagoro, areas 650 away from the crater had a new abundance of tiny fish and other organisms.   Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery. 

Tonga Eruption Offers Opportunity to Study the Power of an Underwater Volcano

Meteorological phenomena conspire to create a host of wild and wonderful outcomes, from "superbolt" lightning that strikes with the force of a low-yield nuclear bomb to pastel-colored "supernumerary" rainbows that occur under the arch of their primary counterparts when sunlight shines through small, similarly-sized water droplets. There's also an oft-repeated adage that warns of worrisome weather to come: When skies turn green, tornadoes soon follow. But is there any truth to this green sky tornado theory, or is this color concern merely circumstantial? Not Easy Being Green Given the potential property and personal damage powerful tornadoes can cause, it's easy to position this color palate presumption as nothing more than superstition — an unrelated occurrence that isn't tied to weather patterns directly but happens adjacent to their occurrence. In fact, green skies prior to significant storms are well documented, suggesting some type of causal link between color and the creation of catastrophic conditions. In an effort to understand this atmospheric advance warning, scientists have already eliminated several explanations, including:   Ground reflection — Some theories held that color reflections from green grass or fields were responsible for the observed emerald effect, but the spectra isn't consistent, and the phenomenon has been observed even when the primary ground color is red or brown soil.  Optical obfuscation — Just as rainbows appear to have "ends" that touch the ground, it's been suggested that the green coloration of clouds is simply an optical illusion. However, meteorological analysis of stormy weather wavelengths has confirmed the presence of green light.  Considering Color Theory: Why Does the Sky Turn Green? Is it the direct result of tornado formation? The time of day? Or something more exotic? As it turns out, there's no single explanation that accounts for every shamrock-colored storm and teal-colored tornado, but several theories may explain common causes:   Low-angle sunlight — In the same way that low-angle light through water droplets after a rainstorm creates rainbows, it's possible the reddish-yellow glow produced by the rising or setting sun combined with blue sky above conspires to create a subtle greenish cast, which may be enhanced when severe storms provide a dark cloud backdrop. In this case, storms don't serve as the catalyst for green light but instead make it easier to observe.  Water vapor wavelengths — Another theory holds that the blue-tinted water held in large amounts by storm clouds combined with low-angle sunlight creates this green coloration as similarly-sized raindrops scatter sunlight into generally uniform wavelengths.  In-storm situations — It's also possible that falling hail or flashing lightning may act as the genesis of these green effects. In the case of falling hail, light reflected through its crystalline structure may produce a green color between storm clouds and the ground, while lightning crashing through a dusty sky may take on a yellow tinge against blue clouds and combine to create green.  So, why does the sky turn green during a storm? There's no simple answer. At best, it's complicated — and unpredictable. Seeking Storm Signs While the green sky tornado theory is scientifically sound, it's worth noting that, even in areas where severe storms are persistent and tornadoes are perpetual, this phenomenon remains rare. In most cases, inclement weather doesn't come with a color-first calling card. This makes it more important for observers to watch for more common signs, such as sudden changes in temperature, pressure or wind speed and the visible formation of large or rotating cloud masses. Put simply? When it comes to powerful storms and pulverizing tornadoes, green is tangentially tied to meteorological machinations. But even without chartreuse-colored clouds or spring-colored skies, severe weather can occur; as a result, it's better to bank on current conditions than bet on color concerns.

Color Me Concerned: The Green Sky Tornado Theory

There's a widening split in the Earth's surface in the East Siberia taiga, or forest. It's around 0.6 miles long with crater walls measuring over 300 feet to its floor. Local Yakutian people won't go near what they call the "doorway to the underworld" because of the constant crashing emanating from the chasm as its walls collapse, according to Atlas Obscura. The Batagaika Crater fascinates scientists as it grows bigger each year (30 to 100 feet), slowly revealing thousands of years of climate history. The crater may even give us insight into how climate change could alter the land we live on. Opening the Door to the Underworld So, how did the door to the underworld open? In the 1960s, forests covering the area around the Batagaika Crater were removed. Without its cover, the tundra heated up and its permafrost started to thaw. As the ice melted, the ground started to slump and distort. This in turn affected tree growth, and the protective forest cover hasn't been able to grow back. Each year, the ground heats up, more permafrost thaws and, as NASA's Earth Observatory has recorded, the crater grows. A multisensory satellite imaging study published in the journal Environmental Earth Sciences shows that the crater has grown three times larger between 1991 and 2018, and the fastest increase took place most recently between 2010 and 2014. Treasures From the Deep Opening the door to the underworld has had some benefits. With each slump and collapse, the Batagaika Crater exposes more of the Earth's history in the region. As the walls peel back on the world's largest permafrost crater, thousands of years of history are exposed, unearthing long-buried strata lines of sediment and prehistoric vegetation. Along with fossils and extremely well-preserved, long-extinct animals, scientists have been able to study the layers of ice age and vegetation growth stretching back over 200,000 years. Science Alert shows how data from this megaslump — or thermokarst — is helping researchers learn more about climate change. By examining the morphology of each layer and the plant remnants they contain, the scientists can then build a picture of what the landscape looked like and what kind of climate formed it. In addition to extracting blood from a 42,000-year-old foal, described here by Smithsonian Mangazine, climate scientists have been able to conceive how plant life adapted to temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide fluctuations. Information like this is extremely valuable in dealing with climate change. Unleashed From the Underworld However, other climate-change "gifts" driving the growth of the Batagaika Crater and effecting similar areas might not be so welcome. Although warmer conditions are a boon for Arctic exploration, thawing permafrost is releasing some unpleasant surprises. Scientists have already seen the ice release long-extinct pathogens still capable of causing disease. What the ice held safely in isolation is now bubbling back up to the surface. Heavy metals within the permafrost are now mobile, and toxic waste dumps can leach into water supplies. As The Narwhal notes, it's not only toxins such as mercury or industrial waste that affect the landscape; the thaw affects the landscape itself, altering ecosystems and food supplies for the animals and humans that make the Arctic region home. Even the world's global seed vault buried in permafrost on the Svalbard Archipelago is at risk. And the thaw itself is also contributing to climate change. Loss of permafrost releases not only carbon dioxide stores but also methane into the atmosphere. Arctic permafrost stores around 1.4 billion metric tons (around 1.54 tons) of carbon, according to The Narwhal, making it one of the largest carbon sinks in the world. Furthermore, warming the land activates microbes that can break down vegetable matter into methane, which then bubbles into the atmosphere through the newly permeable tundra. It's also raining more, which drives further thawing. The Batagaika Crater might be a door that is difficult to close.

Climate History Exposed by the Crumbling Batagaika Crater

Key Takeaways  The last magnetic pole reversal occurred 780,000 years ago, and another flip should happen soon. A reversal could destroy wireless devices and electric grids. As the poles shift, Earth's magnetic field is weakening, which could increase our exposure to radiation from space.Geomagnetic pole reversal effects are natural and spectacular, but they could also destroy the world as we know it.While that may sound dramatic, renowned science journalist Alanna Mitchell's book "The Spinning Magnet" revealed that the next time Earth's magnetic field flips, it could seriously damage the electric infrastructure that defines our modern civilization.What is an Electromagnetic Field?While magnetism is fascinating, it has also been historically misunderstood. According to Physics.org, Earth's magnetic field exists because the planet's solid iron core is surrounded by liquid metal.According to NASA, the flow of liquid iron in Earth's core creates electric currents that generate the magnetic field. This electromagnetic field provides an invisible shield that blocks solar and cosmic rays.Flip-flopping PolesEarth's magnetic poles have reversed many times in the past, but scientists can't predict when the next reversal will occur. In other words, a magnetic field flip is coming, we just don't know when.To find evidence of the magnetic past, scientists examine ancient rocks. Certain minerals in lava flows are sensitive to Earth's magnetic field as the lava cools; scientists analyze the rock samples to uncover a record of Earth's magnetic field, according to National Geographic.Scientific American noted that in the past 200 million years, reversals have taken place approximately every half-million years. The last reversal happened around 780,000 years ago, so we're due for a flip.Potential Magnetic Pole Reversal Effects on HumansWhat are the potential outcomes of swapped North and South Poles? Compass needles would be wrong, and animals that use Earth's magnetic field for navigation — such as birds, salmon, sea turtles, whales and butterflies — could get temporarily disoriented, according to National Geographic.Mitchell warns that a reversal could destroy anything electronic, including home appliances, satellites, wireless devices and the electric grids that make all these items work.In an essay on Undark.org, Mitchell wrote, "We have blithely built our civilization's critical infrastructure during a time when the planet's magnetic field was relatively strong, not accounting for the field's bent for anarchy."What about magnetic pole reversal effects on humans?With a weak electromagnetic field, radiation from space could possibly make some regions of Earth uninhabitable and cause entire species to go extinct. But first, according to Mitchell, we would have problems with sensitive orbiting satellites, which control electric grids and could cause "a domino run of blackouts that could last for decades."What Does the Future Hold?The good news is that we have plenty of time to prepare. The bad news? The magnetic field is much weaker, as low as a tenth of its normal strength, according to Futurism. A gradual change could mean that we'll have years without the invisible protective shield between Earth and space.It's not all doom and gloom, though. We don't know whether this will occur in our lifetime. Even if it does, the flip could take hundreds of years, and geomagnetic pole reversal effects would be mostly gradual.Whether it's closer to home or beyond the solar system, Northrop Grumman is on the cutting edge of space exploration. Read more about what we're up to.

Will Geomagnetic Pole Reversal Effects Cause a Worldwide Blackout?

In March 1872, the United States Congress established Yellowstone National Park as a protected, special place for the American people. This single act started a movement to recognize the importance of American national parks and to protect national outdoor treasures around the world. President Woodrow Wilson further reinforced the importance of national parks in 1916 by signing an act establishing the National Parks Service. The park service offers more than camping, hiking and impressive selfie backdrops spanning 84 million acres in every state; its parks also protect species at risk and help endangered species. For Endangered Species From the gray wolves in Yellowstone to the desert pupfish in Arizona's Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, the importance of national parks in preventing animal extinction is paramount. Thanks to conservation efforts in the South Dakota Badlands, the National Parks Conservation Association reported that what was once the world's rarest mammal — the black-footed ferret — is making a comeback. Animals like the green sea turtle and the California condor are also seeing a rise in numbers thanks to the Endangered Species Act. The NPCA also discusses how protected status in the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park means that the last of the island's native goose species, the NÄ“nÄ“, can strut its feathers in safety. An Outdoor Laboratory The park system's extensive outdoor laboratory has been a perfect breeding ground for scientific discoveries. One of the most important discoveries in microbiology, celebrated in this Business Insider post, owes its existence to research within national park boundaries. Without careful research into extremophile bacteria living in the 80-degrees Celsius thermal vents of Yellowstone National Park, scientists wouldn't have discovered the enzyme responsible for DNA replication. Additionally, the 1960 Nobel Prize in chemistry recognized the usefulness of carbon dating, developed from work done in the Tule Springs Fossil Beds National Monument. Documenting Climate Change  American national parks also play a highly valuable role in documenting climate change. Researchers have utilized the vast tracts of pristine wilderness to collect data on species and habitats. At first, they collected observational data on foot; now, they use sophisticated methods such as aerial surveillance with drones like those used in Northrop Grumman's Wildlife Challenge to collect information on polar bears. Observational longitudinal data collection shows the effects of climate change that impact vegetation and animal species. The pika is the perfect example of an animal who may need to be relocated from the parks due to climate change, as described in Smithsonian Magazine. The park service is taking this very seriously. "It is ... openly discussing the possibility of 'assisted migration:' manually relocating some animals and plants if it turns out they can't survive within the park's changing landscapes." National park research also documents glacier retreat, finding that some ice fields have lost as much as 85 percent in the last five decades, according to U.S. Geological Survey. Glacier Park might be recognizable only as a historical name by 2030, it projects. It's not just glaciers retreating. The Conversation notes that national park data shows that trees are also affected by climate change: "Climate change is killing trees due to increased drought, changes in wildfire patterns and increased bark beetle infestations. Tracking of trees in ... national parks has contributed to a database that revealed how climate change has doubled tree mortality since 1955 across the western United States." We should not forget that at its inception, the National Parks Service's long-term intention was to protect the parks and "leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations." 

Interested in a career with Northrop Grumman? Check out our open positions.