The human exoskeleton, an invention that arose in the 1960s, is finally coming into its own. Designed for medical, military and industrial applications, these wearable machines assist persons with limited mobility, augment human strength and endurance, and reduce the risk of worker injury. By transferring weight and load forces from a person's body to an external, motorized frame, a human exoskeleton makes light work of heavy-duty tasks. And while the idea of augmenting humans with metallic frames may conjure images of fictional villains and mechanical superheroes, in reality, these devices are being developed to improve the lives of everyday people. Here's how. Better Than a Wheelchair In the United States, about 288,000 people live with a spinal cord injury, according to the National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center. Not only can the medical costs from such injuries run into the millions over a person's lifetime, pain and limited mobility can bring about feelings of hopelessness. Between 11% and 37% of people who suffer from spinal cord injuries experience depression, reports the Model Systems Knowledge Translation Center. To help them, research labs working on the future of robotics are developing assistive exoskeletons that give people a new way to get around. Homayoon Kazerooni, director of the Berkeley Robotics and Human Engineering Laboratory and also the cofounder and CEO of suitX says that to assist people who cannot otherwise walk on their own, a human exoskeleton needs to do four things: help a person stand up, start walking, stop walking and sit down. "These four things provide greater independence. They can move around, they can work, they can sit in front of a computer, they can work inside of a kitchen," says Kazerooni. Wheelchairs can't do that. But the Ekso GT and the Phoenix at suitX, both designed under Kazerooni, can. Each is basically a pair of wearable robotic legs — a mix of rigid and soft parts — that a patient puts on by placing their feet into footplates and then strapping the external frames to each leg. Using crutches for stability, they shift their weight slightly side-to-side to engage electronic motors in the frame. Mechanical joints at the hips and knees bend and move forward to produce a walking motion. At first, the machine may do all of the work. But depending on the injury, the repetitive motion can, over time, reengage the patient's muscles and nervous system. Sensors in the frame and motor monitor the progress and display the information on a screen for a physical therapist. If the therapist sees that the patient is getting stronger, he can reduce the power, encouraging muscles to work a little harder. In the last few years, the Food and Drug Administration has approved several exoskeletons for walking assistance and rehabilitation, including suitX's Phoenix, the Ekso GT, Cyberdyne's Medical HAL, ReWalk Robotics and Parker Hannifin's Indego. And in 2019, the health insurance provider Cigna announced it would change its policy to consider exoskeleton devices for individuals on a case-by-case basis. Give Me Strength Millennials are currently the talk of the town. But by 2035, adults age 65 and older will outnumber children under 18 for the first time in American history, according to a report from the Gerontological Society of America. It's not just Americans that are getting older, either. Populations in Japan, Germany, France, Singapore and the United Kingdom will soon also see more elderly than young. At the same time, occupations that require strength, endurance or repetition, such as those in manufacturing, healthcare and the skilled trades, are facing job shortages, according to CBS News. "You want to keep people working longer, but they can't be put into these physically demanding positions — not without help," says Eugene Demaitre, Senior Editor of the Robot Report. That help could come from a human exoskeleton. According to the analyst firm ABI Research, shipments of industrial exoskeletons will grow from 7,000 units in 2018 to 301,000 by 2028, reaching a revenue of $5.8 billion by 2028. Assistive machines designed for the lower half of a person's body can reduce the strain and fatigue of repetitive bending and lifting as well as protect knees and lower backs from injury. Those designed for the upper body protect the shoulders, neck and back. Car manufacturers appear to be early adopters of this technology. Audi, for instance, has been testing startup Noonee's Chairless Chair, a passive, wearable seat for workers who stand for hours on end. Hyundai Motor Group developed a similar device called the Chairless Exoskeleton (H-CEX) to reduce strain on knee joints, and the Hyundai Vest Exoskeleton (H-VEX) makes it possible for a worker to hold an extra 132 pounds overhead without effort. In 2018, Ford announced it had partnered with Ekso Bionics to add wearable EksoVests to 15 assembly plants across seven countries. Some workers in these factories lift their arms overhead on average of 4,600 times per day. The EksoVest reduces fatigue and the possibility of injury by elevating and supporting a worker's arms as they assemble parts that are chest height or higher. The vest fits workers between 5' 2" tall to 6' 4" tall and provides lift assistance from 5 lbs to 15 lbs per arm. SuitX, which has sold 1,200 industrial exoskeletons internationally, entered into an agreement to implement exoskeleton technologies in Siemens' factories around the globe. Kazerooni says that although discussion around the future of robotics suggests people will be supplanted by machines, it hasn't happened yet. "At least for now, we can combine them," he says. March on Metal Warriors For all the medical and industrial progress human exoskeletons promise, their origin lies in a military machine named Hardiman. Designed by General Electric engineer, Ralph S. Mosher, Hardiman was a hulking 1,500-pound wearable machine developed as a joint Army-Navy project. It had a force feedback system to sense the environment and 30 different joints that helped amplify human strength by a factor of 25. Although the prototype represented an engineering breakthrough, its weight, lack of stability and extraordinary power needs ultimately did it in. But the Department of Defense still wants exoskeletons. Two of most advanced military machines being tested today are full-body, autonomously powered robotic exoskeletons from Sarcos. The Guardian XO and XO Max are rigid, hefty suits that can be put on and taken off in about 30 seconds. Unlike other exoskeletons that augment human strength, these machines bear it all. The XO can lift and support 80 lbs of weight for four hours at a time, while the XO Max can handle 200 lbs for up to eight hours. Both can walk at three miles per hour (Hardiman walked 2.5 mph). The military has shown great interest. In 2019, the U.S. Special Operations Command contracted Sarcos to deliver a Guardian XO; in that same year the company announced a partnership with the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard to evaluate the exoskeleton. Previously, the U.S. Air Force had also signed contracts with Sarcos for the XO. But although the original intention behind military exoskeletons has been to increase the strength, endurance, protection and tactical awareness of battlefield soldiers, these machines have yet to fulfill that vision. Earlier this year, Sarcos retired its futuristic Tactical Assault Light Operator Suit, or TALOS, saying that the large, relatively heavy machine wasn't ready for the close, person-to-person environment of combat, reports Defense One. U.S. military units are currently operating in parts of the world, such as the Middle East, that are warm, mountainous and dusty, where agility and comfort are going to be big factors, says Demaitre of the Robot Report. "A full-body battle suit is still the stuff of science fiction," he says. For now, the military exoskeletons will be used mainly for industrial purposes, to load and unload materials, for instance.  Despite some limitations, human exoskeletons remain an important part of the future of robotics. Although originally conceived for battle, these machines will instead infiltrate healthcare and manufacturing to offer bodily support, rehabilitate injuries and bring mobility to people who cannot walk on their own. The future of robotics is just around the corner, but these machines are already making impacts in patient care, industrial labor and military performance. As the technology advances and demand for these devices grow, exoskeletons may be more common than wheelchairs. 

The Human Exoskeleton Comes of Age

3D—printed objects are no longer a novelty and are paving the way for incredible scientific innovation. For example, a large 3D—printed engine part was successfully tested and could be used in the next generation SLS rocket that will send humans to the moon and Mars, NASA reported. Advanced 3D printing is also improving medical treatments and military technology. Advanced 3D Printing in Medicine The road to recovery for any individual with deep skin wounds, which affect all three layers of the skin, can be as painful and traumatic as the incident itself. Researchers at the University of Toronto have developed a handheld 3D printer filled with "bio ink" — essentially an ink cartridge containing biological materials. The bio ink contains strips of biomaterial that include the proteins collagen and fibrin, which are used to promote wound healing. As noted by the university, there are two types of skin grafts: a full thickness skin graft and a split thickness skin graft. Full thickness skin grafts are used for smaller areas, including the hands and face, since the grafts blend well with a person's skin. Split thickness skin grafts, on the other hand, are used to treat large areas and are typically thinner, which can lead to shrinkage and gaps in skin coverage. A deep wound that damages the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis requires a split thickness skin graft. Split thickness skin grafts require large amounts of tissue, but 3D printers can eliminate this need. The University of Toronto's portable 3D printer takes just two minutes to set the tissue on the individual. This scientific innovation can increase skin graft coverage area and improve recovery times for patients.  Another research team from Spain is also working on a 3D bioprinter: it can take three weeks to cover a large wound, but this 3D bioprinter would significantly reduce the treatment time, according to research published in the journal Biofabrication. 3D Printing Advances for Military Security Military personnel entering a dangerous situation may not have time to stop and check a piece of equipment to determine if the area is free from chemical or biological agents. However, a temporary tattoo loaded with electronic sensors printed on their hand can quickly alert them to any danger. Researchers at the University of Minnesota have developed a portable 3D printer that is small enough to fit in a person's hand or inside a backpack. The printer can track its place on an individual's skin and print a functional tattoo that is equipped with sensors. It can also print ink to create different chemical sensors for any situation, according to the university. Additionally, the 3D printer can print a portable charging station for electronic equipment and can produce solar cells on skin, both of which can be used to charge devices out in the field. The Future of 3D Printing 3D printing advances are helping to shape the future of wound care and military security. Artificial organs may even be in our future. As printers get even faster and more advanced, there isn't an area of life that won't be affected by this scientific innovation.

Advanced 3D Printing Is Changing Medicine and Military Safety

The word "warfare" summons images of bombs bursting in air, tanks rolling across scarred battlefields and the rat-a-tat of gunfire. But technological advances in warfare are making war invisible as tools like infrared lasers, fire control radars and cyberweapons are increasingly being deployed. As technological warfare evolves, many conventional weapons are losing some of their punch. Rather than replacing such weapons, the evolving arsenal of invisible weapons enhances them and introduces new levels of complexity to warfare. Futuristic Weapons In the movies, lasers shoot colorful streams of light that can set distant objects aflame. Only the latter part is accurate. The infrared lasers used for military purposes are invisible but can actually heat up distant targets. A powerful laser can heat the explosive in an artillery shell to trigger an explosion or shoot down drones. This isn't some sci-fi vision, either. The U.S. Navy is currently fielding a laser weapons system in the Persian Gulf on the U.S.S. Ponce amphibious transport system. It's considered to be the world's first active laser weapon, according to CNN. Unlike bullets or missiles, precisely targeted laser beams travel at the speed of light. That laser is designed to destroy small boats and aircraft. However, a new generation of Navy laser systems might be able to shoot down missiles. Laser weapons of varying power levels are being developed for different missions and target sets in the air, on land or at sea. These devices can be installed on range of armored vehicles, naval vessels and even aircraft. Fighting in the Electromagnetic Spectrum While there's nothing futuristic about radar — it has been used since World War II — the technology keeps improving. State-of-the-art modular radars enabled by gallium nitride semiconductor chips have far greater detection range compared to traditional systems and provide fire control for targeting enemy aircraft and missiles with interceptors. These radars precisely determine the target's trajectory and its future position. For fighter aircraft, the United States and its allies have begun employing fifth-generation active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar technology in combat. Two examples are Northrop Grumman's APG-81 AESA for the F-35 and the TPS-80 Ground/Air Task Oriented Radar for the Marine Corps. For ground surveillance aircraft and other platforms, Northrop Grumman engineers have developed the Vanguard Radar, which can scale up in size and power by adding radar panels like building blocks. Similarly, electronic warfare is a battle that takes place in the electromagnetic spectrum. Electronic weapons can be used to thwart and detect IED attacks, jam enemy communications — including radar — and take control of enemy drones. The Joint Counter Radio-Controlled Improvised Explosive Device (RCIED) Electronic Warfare (JCREW) is one example of using electronic warfare to prevent IEDs from setting off. Soldiers have operated this software-programmable jammer, also developed by Northrop Grumman, in the field for many years, and it has saved countless lives. Electronic warfare systems carried by the EA-18G Growler emit powerful but invisible radio frequency energy to suppress enemy radar and communications sites, denying them the ability to target and shoot down friendly forces. The ALQ-131 pod can protect aircraft from radar-guided weapons. At a smaller scale, microwave energy weapons that operate a lot like radar have been developed to fry electronic equipment using pulses of power. These high-powered microwave devices have been successfully tested against rows of computers and even flying drones. Finally, because of advances in technological warfare, today's battles are increasingly fought in cyberspace. Cyberwarfare encompasses everything from the widely reported Stuxnet attack against an Iranian uranium enrichment site to Russia's takedown of Ukraine's power grid. Often, the damage from such attacks degrades an opponent's ability to operate and can also disrupt the economy. According to The Guardian, Lloyd's of London estimated that a successful hack against cloud computing services could cost as much as the cleanup for Hurricane Katrina. A cyberattack could lay the groundwork for a conventional invasion in some cases, as could an electromagnetic pulse attack. National Interest explained that in the U.S., a low-yield nuclear missile detonated at high altitude could take out 75 percent of the nation's power. Such invisible futuristic weapons can be just as scary as conventional ones and ultimately wreak more damage. Fighting them requires a new breed of soldiers who are just as comfortable in front of a computer terminal as behind a gun. That may not fit with the standard view of war heroics, but these days, taking down a cyberattack is becoming just as critical to victory as shooting down an enemy plane.

Futuristic Weapons: Technological Advances in Warfare Make Fighting Invisible

There are an estimated 110 million landmines in the ground. Originally planted as weapons and concentrated in many of the world's most war-torn nations, landmines more often cause injuries or death among civilians, especially women and children, than to soldiers. About 26,000 people a year, or 70 per day, are killed by landmines. Engineers and designers have been developing unmanned systems to efficiently neutralize landmines to prevent life-threatening injuries.Slow and Dangerous WorkIn the past, people looking to clear landmines have relied on metal detectors or animals like dogs or rats to detect landmines. But physically clearing them usually involves trying to disarm them or, more often, safely detonating them. It's slow and dangerous work — an average of two people are injured, and one killed, for every 5,000 landmines cleared, according to the United Nations.Since the 1990s, militaries seeking to move across minefields have relied upon heavy, tank-like devices to clear landmines. These are among the most popular techniques even for humanitarian purposes because they are hardy, can work quickly, and can withstand the blast. But these devices have a big limitation: they require a driver.Unmanned SystemsMore recently, some companies have moved towards unmanned systems operated by remote control. Many of them are equipped with metal detectors or other techniques to identify mines, and various attachments at the front (flail arm, tiller) to detonate the mines once they're found.The D-3, created by the Swiss nonprofit Digger Foundation, has the rototiller front and armored body of other vehicles and can be remotely operated from more than 1,000 feet away. Previous iterations of the D-3 have cleared mines in North and South Sudan. Another, the Prime Tech PT-300 D:Mine is slightly smaller but can be remotely operated from nearly two miles away. It has been used in 10 countries, including Colombia, where a brutal civil war left more than 11,000 people killed or injured by landmines. The tractor-like LOCOSTRA is small and agile, making it less expensive than similar models. It can be operated from a maximum of 650 feet away. It's been tested in Jordan, where most landmines had been planted during Arab—Israeli conflicts in 1948 and 1967. The Bozena looks more like a lawnmower than a demining machine. It moves on wheels (unlike other models that use tracks, as tanks do) and can be operated from three miles away. More than 80 units are being used in two dozen countries all over the world, by military and humanitarian efforts alike.In October 2016, Northrop Grumman successfully demonstrated the unmanned AQS-24B mine hunting system in Scotland, furthering its role in unmanned minesweeping technologies in the air, on the surface, and underground.Future TechniquesIn the future, landmines may be removed by completely autonomous devices. Afghan-born designer Massoud Hassani has come up with a drone-based mine-clearing device. It contains GPS to map the mines at a distance, keeping the device itself intact. The project isn't yet in the field (although it received more than double its goal funding on Kickstarter) but it would presumably be used in Hassani's native Afghanistan and beyond.Some engineers are looking at radar that can penetrate into the ground and deactivate mines so that they can safely be dug up and destroyed. Others are turning their attention to autonomously neutralizing water-based mines, which can explode due to the vibrations of a nearby ship, regardless of it being a military or civilian vehicle. The U.S. and Israeli militaries have been working on autonomous or remote-controlled boats for several years.New, innovative techniques to autonomously clear mines could mean a safer future for thousands of operators and civilians alike. For residents of the world's most war-torn nations, peace may finally be peaceful after all.Want to innovate new ways to detect and clear landmines? Consider a career with Northrop Grumman.

Lifesaver: Unmanned Systems Removal of Land Mines

What would the TIE fighter, X-wing, laser weapons and four-legged transport vehicles look like in the real world? As we anticipate the release of "Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker," we're looking at the feasibility of our favorite fictional military technology. The designs may look cool on the big screen, but how would these designs fare in the real world? Laser Weapons Lightsaber battles are strictly science fiction, but the ship-mounted laser cannons in the "Star Wars" universe are more realistic. The United States Navy is fielding direct energy systems such as laser weapons and installing them on ships, according to USNI News. While the sci-version of a laser weapon involves a bright, loud blast, the Navy's real version is silent and invisible. One of the cool features of lasers in "Star Wars" and real life is there's no need to reload the weapon. Carly Wright, an optical engineer at Northrop Grumman, currently works on the laser source. "As long as you have electricity or fuel, you can use your lasers," Wright says. "There isn't a finite number of shots that you can do. That's particularly handy for the Navy when their ships are deployed." Y-Wing When the Rebel Alliance needs a durable, safe fighter aircraft, the Y-wing is a reliable choice. It might not be as agile as an X-wing, but it can carry heavy weapon payloads and remain flying while under fire. These qualities make it similar to the A-10 Thunderbolt II, according to Popular Science. Just like its sci-fi counterpart, this modern jet is known for its ability to get pilots home safe, even if it's damaged in battle. The Air Force has flown the A-10 Thunderbolt II, a.k.a. "The Warthog," during the Desert Storm conflict of the 1990s and in recent missions in Iraq and Afghanistan. TIE Fighter Thanks to an owner's manual that published earlier this year, fans can learn how to fly a TIE fighter. The book examines every detail of the formidable aircraft. Illustrator Chris Reiff told CNET, "As a pilot, I really liked seeing just how different the TIE fighters would be to fly. It's as different from an X-wing as a helicopter is from an airplane — a totally different design and control philosophy and perfect for its role." In the fictional universe, the TIE Fighter intimidated enemies of the Empire. But Popular Mechanics points out that in real life, it would be the least aerodynamic aircraft of all, with a drag coefficient of .98, which is slightly better than a flying brick. Drag would depend on air, which would vary depending on the planet's atmosphere, but it still serves as a tool for comparison. X-Wing This rebel alliance aircraft is a bit more realistic with a theoretical drag coefficient of .45, according to Popular Mechanics. According to Starwars.com, the X-wing is a versatile starfighter that balances speed with firepower. Popular Science compares it to the real-world fighter aircraft the Supermarine Spitfire, flown by the British in WWII. Much like the X-wing, the Spitfire was an agile, acrobatic fighter aircraft equipped with enough weapons for combat without weighing it down. All Terrain Armored Transport (AT-AT) The lumbering AT-AT walkers make excellent cinematic props, but how would they fare in real life? It doesn't make much sense to transport troops on a four-legged armored vehicle. In robotics, legs are notoriously unstable and are typically only used as a gimmick. When efficiency and stability matter, wheels are best. Engineering and robotics firm Boston Dynamics developed an industrial-grade quadruped robot named Spot that appears to have a similar shape to the AT-AT vehicles. Spot can walk, trot, avoid obstacles, climb stairs and step over rubble, according to IEEE Spectrum. This could make it a good vehicle for transporting troops on a rocky planet, but it's unclear how much payload it can handle and how durable it would be when facing an enemy. The Imperial walkers appear intimidating on the battlefield, but they're quite impractical. In the real world, it makes more sense to transport ground troops in wheeled vehicles or tracked vehicles like tanks. At least they can't be defeated by tripping them or blowing up their heads. To enjoy "Star Wars" technology, you simply have to suspend your disbelief. Some of the military technology is inspired by real-world innovations, while others are pure fantasy, and that's the whole point.  

"Star Wars" vs. The Real World: TIE Fighter, Laser Weapons and More

As a child, Beatrice "Tilly" Shilling played with building sets and spent her spare change on tools for tinkering with projects; at 16, she bought herself a motorcycle and started modifying it. She was a trailblazer practically from the day of her birth on March 8, 1909, so it's not surprising that this British aircraft engineer would go on to solve a dangerous flaw in the Supermarine Spitfire, an iconic World War II aircraft. She was a pioneer in military aviation technology and an early advocate for women in engineering. It is quite fitting that we now celebrate International Women's Day on her birthday.   Book Smart and Street Smart      Though she was clearly skilled from an early age, Shilling hadn't considered pursuing a career as an engineer until her mother discovered The Women's Engineering Society. After high school, she secured an apprenticeship at an electrical firm owned by Margaret Partridge, who mentored Shilling and urged her to study electrical engineering formally. Shilling became one of the first two women to study engineering at the University of Manchester, where her student record card defaulted to "Mr." since all students were presumed to be male, says the BBC.    Despite the challenges, Shilling graduated in 1932 with an honors degree in electrical engineering. Work was scarce during the Great Depression, so she continued school. She earned a master's degree by researching combustion engines, which had fascinated her ever since she started motorcycling. "I got a lot of pleasure from dismantling and rebuilding this motorcycle," Shilling wrote of her teenage project in a 1969 letter in The Woman Engineer: The Journal of the Women's Engineering Society of the UK. (Skip to page 326 to read it in full).   As soon as women were allowed to race motorcycles at Brooklands, the world's first motor racing circuit, Shilling bought herself a Norton M30 and modified the engine to make it even faster. In 1934, she hit speeds of 106 mph (171 kph) to win a Brooklands gold star, according to Engineering and Technology.    Enable targeting cookies to view this content. Savior of the Royal Air Force   Following her success in both racing and academia, Shilling started working at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, which supplied the Royal Air Force with military aviation technology. During this time, it was uncommon to hire women, notes the BBC.   Shilling explains in her 1969 letter, "The Air Ministry, having had some experience of women's work in the First World War, were not entirely unsympathetic and I was offered a job as an assistant in the Technical Publications Department at the Establishment." After spending eight months writing aero-engine handbooks, she was transferred to the engine department, where she specialized in research and development on carburetors, a much better match for her skills and interest.   When World War II broke out, the Royal Air Force had an urgent problem: The engines of its warplanes were prone to cutting out mid-flight. There was a glitch in the Rolls-Royce Merlin engines that powered the iconic Supermarine Spitfire fighter plane and the Hurricane fighter-bomber. When planes performed g-maneuvers, such as dives and other aerobatics, fuel could flood the engine and cause stalling, Real Engineering explains.   Tilly Shilling fixed the defective engine problem in 1940 by adding a small disk to the carburetor that stopped the fuel surge and prevented stalling. She spent the next year touring air force bases to show them how to make the repair. Her device was a relatively easy and temporary fix so that they didn't have to refit planes, and it enabled pilots to win the war.   Post-War Life   In 1938, Shilling married George Naylor, who also raced motorcycles and worked at the Royal Aircraft Establishment. Although her work was crucial to the RAE, Shilling spent a decade as a temporary worker because jobs were only open to single women, who, as a rule, were paid less than men. In 1948, the marriage rule was removed and she became an official RAE employee. That same year, she received the Order of the British Empire and was recognized as a crucial contributor to the eventual Allied victory, according to Motherboard.   She continued aeronautical work for the RAE on projects such as solid-fuel rockets, aircraft brakes and more until she retired in 1969. Shilling stayed active in the aerospace engineering and racing communities for the rest of her life, but much like NASA's "Hidden Figures," she remains an underappreciated hero of 20th century innovation. 

Fearless Beatrice Shilling Saved the Spitfire

  To encrypt a message is to convert it into a form that only authorized recipients can understand, even if it falls into unauthorized hands. (Converting a message back to readable form is called decryption.) As Margaret Rouse reports at Techtarget, the idea of encryption goes back to ancient times, but until recently it was of practical concern almost exclusively to the military and national intelligence agencies. But the growth of the internet, and the enormous role it now plays in business and our daily lives, has changed all that. Encryption of internet traffic has now become a major concern for practically everyone. In the process it has also raised complex new issues, such as how to balance the needs of individual online security and privacy with those of national security. Codes and Ciphers In everyday language it is common to say that any encrypted message is "in code," but in fact there are two quite different basic ways to encrypt a message: codes and ciphers. A code substitutes harmless words for the critical words in a message. So, for example, "send flowers" might mean launch airstrikes. Codes can be very hard to break, because there is no formula that will reveal the true message. But they are limited because you cannot encode a message that is not already provided in the code book. A cipher, in contrast, applies a formula, called an encryption key, to each individual character — letter, punctuation mark and so forth — in a message in order to encrypt it. A reverse formula, or decryption key, is used to decrypt the message. The formula can potentially be "broken" — allowing unauthorized people to read the message. But the advantage of a cipher over a code is that any message can be encrypted. Sender and recipient don't need to agree in advance on specific code words, but only the encryption and decryption keys. Computer encryption systems are based on ciphers, and a whole branch of mathematics has developed around the techniques for creating ciphers that are difficult to break. Modern encryption systems typically have a "public key," available to anyone, that can be used to encrypt a message, along with a "private key" — provided only to authorized persons — which is used to decrypt a message. Thus, anyone can send you an encrypted message by using your public key, but only people you entrust with your private key can read those messages. But why has this type of encryption technology become important to everyone, not just military commanders or secret agents? A World Without Envelopes Before the rise of the internet, most messages were fairly difficult to intercept. Most letters were sent by mail, sealed in envelopes. Simply getting hold of a letter not meant for you was fairly difficult, and opening the envelope in a way that it could be resealed (to hide the fact that someone unauthorized had read it) was also difficult. Phone calls aren't concealed by envelopes, but tapping an old-fashioned phone call was also a difficult process. In contrast, the same technology that makes the internet fast and reliable also makes internet messages easy for almost anyone to read. Internet messages are sent as "packets" of data that are electronically passed from one internet computer (a "server") to the next, until they reach their destination. A variety of tools can allow hackers — such as cybercriminals or hostile intelligence agencies — to intercept data packets en route. Anyone who intercepts it can examine the data, bit by bit. This applies to your personal email and credit card number. Indeed, it applies to anything and everything sent through the internet. Which means that the only way to keep hackers from reading your email or financial data is to encrypt it. Thus, as Robert A. Grimes notes at Infoworld, the call for universal "end to end" encryption on the internet. Northrop Grumman has worked with secure communications for decades, going back before anyone ever heard of the internet. The need to encrypt messages is not new to Northrop Grumman, but it remains on the forefront of encryption technology.

Encrypt Before Sending, and Why Encryption Matters

Instead of having the world wait for one miracle drug, the governments of the world partnered with several pharmaceutical companies to create several vaccines to combat COVID-19. This critical decision illustrated that when organizations work with many partners, they benefit from a wellspring of collaboration and ingenuity. Breaking the chains of vendor lock-in not only expands choice through competition, but it also better serves an open framework for design, computing and many other applications driven by technology. As products and services development continues to advance by leaps and bounds thanks to rapid gains in technology, it no longer makes sense for organizations to limit themselves to one vendor and essentially one option. Imagine if the world waited for one company to devise a COVID-19 vaccine, only to see hiccups in testing or manufacturing, or for the drug to not work at all. Even though the efficacy of the three COVID-19 vaccines on the U.S. market vary, they each reduce the chance of major illness and death nonetheless — a significant step toward a return to normalcy for society. The power of many is helping public health. Wide-scale collaborations happen in many other industries, including defense, where militaries work with several partners at once to create aircraft, weaponry and defense systems more flexibly and faster than before. As the old saying goes, there's safety in numbers — but there's also an opportunity to create bold and exciting things that might not be possible with one vendor. Lock-in With More Than One Vendor The feeling of vendor lock-in doesn't sink in overnight. Organizations sign a long-term services contract with a vendor because of favorable costs, familiarity with its employees, satisfaction with the work or lack of favorable competition. When a vendor remains flexible, delivers valued products and services and understands exactly what an organization needs, then it's a relationship worth keeping. These contracts seem constricting only when delivery goes awry, costs stay higher than those of competitors, or other vendors are suddenly offering better products and services. Lock-in draws scrutiny in technology, particularly the long-term contracts that organizations sign with cloud vendors. When businesses began moving data and applications to the cloud, they did so incrementally and usually to a public cloud service. There wasn't a need to consider more than one cloud vendor. But with organizations breaking free from monolithic infrastructure — shifting more data to the cloud, using scores of cloud-based applications and databases and creating their own cloud applications to develop products — suddenly, no one wants to get pinned to just one cloud service. For example, it's advantageous to run software development workloads with a cloud service provider that's responsive to that kind of deployment, while another provider may better manage data analytics workloads. Companies also want to seamlessly move workloads between cloud service providers. Of course, vendor lock-in doesn't apply only to digital technology. An automobile manufacturer, for one, ideally wants to avoid a long-term deal with a parts supplier because of the possibility that the vendor could face a shortage or an inability to keep up with changes in manufacturing. (Although, technology is at the heart of the computer chip shortage that's slowing the production of cars, as the New York Times reports.) And while farmers undoubtedly have long measured the value of staying with one vendor for tractors and other traditional farming equipment, they — as with many other industries — are now trying to avoid lock-in with technology suppliers. Many farmers are embracing technology to gauge weather and agricultural conditions to increase yield, but the vendors of these services are creating closed systems to keep customers locked-in, much as tractor manufacturers and parts suppliers have long done, according to Venture Beat. Collaborating to Connect the Military's Joint Forces By expanding the web of development and creation to more than one vendor, organizations consider different ideas and strategies. New ways of working, solving problems and reaching goals take hold. For more than a decade, the Defense Department has attempted to break free of the longstanding practice of typically sticking with one contractor for specific projects. That's why it's not surprising to see more than 100 different companies working on various components of Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2), a sweeping initiative to digitally connect the U.S. military's weapons systems and similarly connect technologies used by the servicemen and servicewomen of the military branches. The military couldn't undertake such a massive reconstruction of its technology with just one contractor. Northrop Grumman's work on JADC2 is less an agency-contractor relationship than it is a partnership to ensure the DOD stays ahead of the capabilities of other militaries that have long relied on commercial technology. The company is reviewing the existing digital and hardware systems of the joint forces and devising how to upgrade and integrate them with technologies such as artificial intelligence, machine learning and predictive analytics. That work includes creating an Internet of Military Things. According to Wired, wearables and smartphones will automatically communicate with vehicles, weapons and satellites, giving women and men across each service branch — and in allied nations — a clearer understanding of their missions in the field. "The Department of Defense realized that our adversaries were using commercial software to get ahead," Scott Stapp, a retired Air Force brigadier general who is now the chief technology officer at Northrop Grumman, told Wired. "So the military decided to get ahead of it by working with commercial partners that have been developing these types of technologies for years. Now we're at a tipping point, working together to bypass our adversaries at an exponential rate." It Takes Partners to Fight a Pandemic Proof of the power of collaboration could be found this year on the shoulders of more than 161 million Americans: a bandage covering the mark of a needle delivering a COVID-19 vaccination. When the pandemic all but halted life and many sections of global commerce in 2020, few would have bet on a quick turnaround. But with the governments of the world working closely with several pharmaceutical companies to develop, manufacture and ship more than 3.7 billion doses of a vaccine as of July 2021, a return to normalcy has begun, even if slowly. As the New York Times notes, a joint effort to develop COVID-19 vaccines shouldn't be surprising; government research and the funding of private initiatives has created transistors, silicon chips, radar, jet airplanes, satellites, artificial limbs, cortisone, flat-screen TVs and monitors. Work to combat the latest coronavirus started before its global spread. Moderna and Pfizer for several years leaned on government-funded research of viral genetics and proteins. As Kaiser Health News outlined, all that research set the stage for the fast development of COVID-19 vaccines. The U.S. government worked closely with the pharmaceutical companies as they raced against the clock, funding Moderna's efforts and helping Pfizer acquire manufacturing supplies, according to The Atlantic. The government-corporate focus on ending COVID-19 has carried over borders. Pfizer will start helping a company partially owned by the South African government to manufacture vaccines in Africa, as the Associated Press reports, while the U.S. and E.U. will provide funding for vaccine distribution in the continent. The advance against COVID-19 demonstrates, again, that expanding relationships with many vendors can benefit companies, governments and society. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Overcoming Vendor Lock-In Leads to Better Outcomes

Imagine the battlespace of the future. Autonomous airplanes soar overhead, ever watching, sending vital intelligence back to ground stations on the other side of the world. Sailors and airmen offshore and in the air jam enemy signals to protect allied forces from land-based missiles. Further inland, soldiers use satellite communications to receive the latest orders as they muster into position while cyber units look for opportunities to exploit enemy networks. In this scenario, all services and coalition forces are working together across a common digital network to deter aggression or ensure the US and its allies prevail in a conflict should hostilities begin. This is closer to the reality of today than you might realize. But what separates today's high tech battlespace from the truly joint future of science fiction is how difficult it is for today's cutting edge technologies to interact. As warfare leans more heavily on digital signals, often coming from multiple branches of the military operating in every military domain at once, it's becoming increasingly important to find better ways to integrate these technologies into a seamless battlefield management system. Integrated Strengths Speaking at the annual gathering of the Air Force Association in September 2019, then-Chief of Staff of the Air Force General David Goldfein illustrated the imperative of developing a system of Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2). "Victory in future combat will depend less on individual capabilities and more on the integrated strengths of a connected network available for coalition leaders to employ," said Goldfein. "What I'm talking about is a fully networked force where each platform's sensors and operators are connected." The Toaster In El Segundo, California, Northrop Grumman's Distributed Autonomy/Responsive Control (DA/RC) team has been charged with engineering a solution that controls a wide range of the connected sensors and operators. Under the bright red lights of a command and control room known as The Toaster, the El Segundo team — along with their colleagues in San Diego — are showing just how to control a wide range of systems as part of an integrated battle management network. The DA/RC team's working prototype can control systems, platforms and software across military services and domains (land, air, sea, space and cyber), and is part of the company-wide effort to provide JADC2 solutions to the US and its allies. "We are working toward connecting the battlespace because we know our technology will help save lives," said Bryan Lima, business lead for Northrop Grumman's company-wide JADC2 efforts. "The women and men who work on Northrop Grumman's enabling JADC2 technologies know how important this effort is and how challenging and important this work is. We've developed a mix of platforms and applications that enable us to uniquely address the threat called out in the National Defense Strategy. Connecting the battlespace and enabling battle management in the contested battlespace in ways nobody has thought of is what we are working to achieve." 24/7 Coverage Enabling all existing and future systems to work together is critical. That powerful joint force will act as a deterrent against future conflicts with other powerful nationsâ€•often referred to as peer-to-peer conflictâ€• and it will also help ensure victory if military action does eventuate. The question for the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) right now is how it can leverage existing and emerging technology to connect dozens, or even hundreds, of autonomous and manned platforms across huge swaths of terrain and domains. And, how can those platforms be controlled to ensure 24/7 coverage of a highly contested battlespace? Goldfein went on to say in his Air Force Association speech that, "The goal is to combine to produce multiple dilemmas for our adversaries in a way that will overwhelm them. An even better outcome is to refine to the point where it produces so many dilemmas for our adversaries that they choose not to take us on in the first place." Northrop Grumman's DA/RC prototype demonstrates JADC2 in a range of battlefield environments and does so utilizing multi-domain systems to enable 24/7 battlespace control. By controlling a large number of manned and unmanned assets with an integrated battle management approach for prolonged periods of time, companies like Northrop Grumman are helping DoD realize their fully networked future. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery in science, technology, and engineering.

The Future of Defense

From Music to Missile Defense: The Very Interesting Life of Jeff Baxter

Key Takeaways Anything over five times the speed of sound is hypersonic. Challenges with frictional heat have hampered hypersonic development. New technologies, such as oblique detonation waves, may make hypersonic speeds possible at scale.Hypersonic speeds are possible but problematic. From managing intense friction heat to controlling detonation shockwaves, going (really) fast and staying safe isn't easy. New developments in hypersonic technologies, however, may pave the way for the next generation of speedy air and spacecraft.Fast, Faster, FastestConventional, commercial aircraft travel is much slower than the speed of sound, typically between 500 and 600 miles per hour. Jet fighters, meanwhile, regularly break the sound barrier. According to the official U.S. Air Force website, the F-15E Strike Eagle can reach speeds of Mach 2.5, or 1,875 miles per hour.Push the speed limit to Mach 5 or more, however, and you're in hypersonic territory. At this point, aircraft travel would be almost a mile each second, making even intercontinental travel a relatively quick trip.Breaking the Speed Barrier ... AgainOnly one human-piloted airplane has ever achieved hypersonic flight. According to Space.com, this was the legendary X-15 research plane, which made its last hypersonic flight 50 years ago in 1967.In addition, orbital spacecraft briefly hit hypersonic speeds during their climb into space and again when returning to Earth's atmosphere. The Space Shuttle operated as a hypersonic aircraft during re-entry, before slowing down to merely supersonic speeds. Beyond the initial X-15 flight and the occasional spacecraft, however, hypersonic flight has been limited to a handful of unpiloted research vehicles.The biggest barrier to piloted hypersonic aircraft? These speeds are hot stuff. Any object passing through the air at Mach 5 and above produces intense frictional heating as it pushes the air out of its path. Keeping this heat from melting the airframe is the first great challenge of sustained hypersonic flight.The second temperature trouble is keeping the heat from melting critical parts of a jet engine. This is not a problem for rocket planes, such as the X-15, but the intakes of conventional jet engines and even ramjets are limited to about Mach 6 — toward the "slow" (relatively speaking) end of the hypersonic range. So-called scramjets (short for supersonic combusting ramjet, a technology that limits heat buildup) have shown promise in sustaining higher speeds without burning up.Work on new engine technologies is also underway. For example, researchers at the University of Central Florida recently received a grant from the U.S. Department of Defense to help develop their hypersonic high-enthalpy system. Their approach relies on detonation — fuel is detonated in a hypersonic reaction chamber. This detonation produces a shockwave that sends aircraft hurtling forward at hypersonic speeds.While detonation-based propulsion efforts aren't new, they're notoriously difficult to control. Researchers at the university also encountered this problem but have developed a potential solution: oblique detonation waves. Unlike their rotating counterparts, which naturally spin and are harder to manage, oblique waves are stationary and stabilized, allowing for a more focused shockwave output. The result is a hypersonic propulsion system that could deliver speeds between Mach 6 and Mach 17, or 4,600 to 13,000 miles per hour.Hypersonics for National DefenseAfter half a century on the back burner, what has put hypersonics back in the technology spotlight? The most immediate concerns relate to national defense, as noted by Politico. With intercontinental ballistic missiles capable of reaching hypersonic speeds in the upper atmosphere, there's a growing need for hypersonic military aircraft that can intercept these missiles and carry out high-speed reconnaissance of potential threats.In addition, many air defense systems are now able to target and shoot down merely supersonic aircraft, potentially even stealthy ones, and the only way for aircraft to avoid these systems is to outrun them by reaching and sustaining hypersonic speeds.National security also depends on hypersonic missile defense systems capable of detecting and responding to hypersonic missile speeds. The field of "counter hypersonics" focuses on neutralizing hypersonic threats from detection to interception.Hypersonics for Commercial UseWhile the first operational hypersonic planes will be military, a new generation of hypersonic airliners could follow them through the speed barrier. Supersonic transports, such as the now-retired Concorde, did not sufficiently reduce intercontinental travel times enough to transform commercial flying. Hypersonic transports, however, could fundamentally change the airline industry.Consider the straight-line distance between Los Angeles and New York, which is roughly 2,445 miles. Using a conventional jet engine flying at 500 miles per hour, the trip takes just over 4 hours. In a hypersonic plane capable of reaching Mach 6, however, this trip is a quick 30 minutes.And beyond the hypersonic transport lies the possibility of a true spaceplane, an aircraft that could take off and land like an ordinary jet, but capable of carrying payloads — and astronauts — into orbit. A hypersonic orbital spaceplane would make space travel as affordable as air travel is today.The technology of hypersonics calls for flying outside the box.This need for speed is something that Northrop Grumman has been passionate about since its pioneering Flying Wing took to the air in the 1940s. Learn more.

Hypersonic Speeds: When "Fast" Just Isn't Fast Enough

Key Takeaways Military uniforms have evolved to blend in rather than stand out. Current-generation uniforms are often made of smart fabrics that include carbon nanotubes and can adapt to environmental circumstances. Next-generation uniforms may include anti-radar and fire-extinguishing properties.As time marches on, military uniform technology keeps pace. When Spartans pounded the dusty earth flat with their sandals, their crimson cloaks and round shields prefaced the ferocity of their intent. Spiked Roman helmets and two-meter-tall spears highlighted their wealth as a fighting force. Military uniform technology has come a long way since, with massive leaps forward over the last century.Let's take a look at the evolution of military uniforms, what today's military forces are wearing and what we can expect tomorrow.Historical Military Uniform MaterialsThe British made a major mark on history with their iconic uniforms. Red coats provided a consistent look but also gave them away as they marched through the swamps and forests of pre-revolutionary America.After declaring independence, to set themselves apart from Britain, the early U.S. Continental Army wore blue wool coats, red sashes and tri-cornered hats. By the next formal battle with the British, those hats had grown tall, conical and feathered. The blue coats had white collars rising stiffly to just below the ears.For the U.S.-Mexican War and the U.S. Civil War, the wool stayed, but the Army caps became short, squat "forage" caps — hats that could be worn into the wood and fields while foraging for horse food. According to Naval History and Heritage Command, collars flattened and fanned out in the Army as well as in the increasingly powerful U.S. Navy. Blue wool was sometimes swapped for gray, depending on what was available and on what side of the conflict the U.S. soldier was standing.For a long time, wool was one of the best materials for military uniforms since it is hardy. The Spanish-American War came at the turn of the 19th century, and with it, a shift from wool to cotton, plus a new color scheme: khaki. Khaki was popularized in the mid-1800s by, once again, the British, who were occupying tropical climates during this time, according to Heddels. The four tones of khaki darkened into olive and brown for World War I and II. Light windbreakers and cargo pants also became combat fashion during the Korean and Vietnam Wars.Mirroring the Marines, by Operation Desert Storm, the Army battle dress had adopted a collage of camouflage patterns, culminating in 2004 as the Army Combat Uniform (ACU). These digital patterns incorporated almost every color seen to date, including gray, beige, browns and tans, and green tones not yet seen before in warfare. These multicolor palettes and materials made for stealth missions allowed the wearer to visually blend in — to be cloaked, as it were, by their surroundings.What Are Military Uniforms Made Of?The fabric depends on the function. Wool was a popular choice for its durability but was replaced with cotton for its breathability. Where protection from physical attacks was once handled by steel or wooden shields, Kevlar body armor is now standard for many military branches. In addition, newer uniforms may include nanoscale carbon tubes and polymer layers, which are capable of keeping out chemical agents, water and even viruses.These uniforms are capable of adjusting their function to match user behavior and align with environmental conditions. For example, if soldiers are on a long and strenuous hike, their uniforms can become more breathable to prevent overheating. If the temperature falls and it starts to rain, uniforms can become impermeable to water, in turn preventing soldiers from getting cold and wet — conditions that could impact performance in the field.What's Next for Military Uniforms?While current-generation uniforms are keeping pace with today's challenges, weapons and tactical development doesn't stop. The result is an arms and armor race as military organizations look to ensure the safety of their soldiers against evolving attack methods.According to Marine Corps Times, the Marines solicited bids for their new uniform. Specific requirements included flame-resistant properties that either prevent the uniform from dripping or melting when exposed to heat or self-extinguishing capabilities that will stop fabric from burning once the fire source is removed.As attack methods change, the evolution of military uniforms must keep pace. From textiles to technology, uniforms aren't simply clothes — they're purpose-built protective gear that can make the difference between failed operations and successful missions.See how Northrop Grumman serves the mission with opportunities for U.S. military veterans. 

The Evolution of Military Uniforms

The glow of a firefly as dusk arrives on a warm, summer night. The radiant tentacles of a comb jellyfish deep in the dark abyss of the ocean. The bright rhythm of a glowworm as it moves through a humid cave. What do all of these organisms have in common? Their illuminating shades of green, blue and yellow are almost magical and present a beautiful spectacle on both land and sea, creating bright, vivid sparks of color. This natural phenomenon ignites a keen sense of discovery for researchers, technologists and scientists. This magic, known as bioluminescence, or the production and emission of light by a living organism, is most often seen with underwater living organisms, but bioluminescence can also play a role in national security. Where do the two intersect? Recent technological innovations have begun to challenge the idea of bioluminescence, transforming how we light our world for purposes such as medical research and military defense, as well as other key applications. One application for bioluminescence that could impact defense is being explored through Northrop Grumman's Target Acquisition via Bioluminescence and Snapping Shrimp (TABSS) project. TABSS, which was recently awarded to Northrop Grumman by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Biological Technology Office under its Persistent Aquatic Living Sensors (PALS) program, is taking expertise in sensing to a new level, using undersea organisms to assist in passively detecting adversarial manned and unmanned vessels in the water. Northrop Grumman will use both light and sound emitted from different underwater organisms such as plankton, jellyfish, and snapping shrimp to develop sensing hardware with increased sensitivity to achieve greater sensing range and endurance. It will also apply machine learning to recognize behavioral patterns in the marine environment to help differentiate target vessels from confounders such as dolphins, sharks and whales. Biological sensors occupy every maritime environment and have evolved multi-modal sensing capabilities across many domains - electrical, acoustic, optical (including in extremely low light), magnetic and chemical, and even tactile structures, in the form of mechanoreceptors, that are capable of detecting and triangulating minute changes in fluid flow as well as sources of disturbances. The TABSS Project, which involves advancing optical and acoustic sensing technologies as well as radar-related processing and machine learning, adds a new dimension to sensing that has not been fully explored and has application from undersea to space. Northrop Grumman's team includes expertise with undersea biological organisms from Duke University and the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. The University of Memphis and Coda Octopus Colmek will contribute to the design, model and build of the sensing system. Northrop Grumman will apply its knowledge in undersea systems, Side-Looking Sonar, seabed warfare, submarine warfare and counter-unmanned underwater vehicle warfare. To learn more about the PALS program, click here.

Lighting Up the World with Bioluminescence Technology

The United States had a secret weapon in World War 2: young women who hacked military messages. Now, these WW2 codebreakers are getting the credit they deserve. While men were fighting overseas, a different kind of battle was being fought by American women in WW2. A group of approximately 10,000 women were secretly recruited and worked behind the scenes, breaking into German and Japanese communications systems. They decoded messages that had been encrypted on multiple levels, which was extremely complicated and crucial to military operations. In contrast to those who returned from the war with stories of battlefield glory, codebreakers couldn't talk about what they were doing, so they didn't become war heroes. In the years since, these women's stories have begun to come out, thanks to efforts like "Code Girls" by Liza Mundy.  The Stigma of Women in WW2 In the World War 2 era, there was a stigma associated with codebreaking because it was considered secretarial. The prevailing stereotype was that women were better at "boring" tasks like crunching numbers, such as the "Hidden Figures" who computed rocket trajectories. Though codebreaking should have been a prestigious job, the women could be prosecuted for treason if they revealed what they were doing. Instead, people assumed the women were assisting the military men. If anyone asked, the codebreakers were told to say they emptied trash cans and sharpened pencils. Who Were the Codebreakers? During the war, Axis powers shared information in messages that were coded on multiple levels, which made them extremely difficult to break. It took a special mixture of patience, creativity and logic to break the codes and read the messages. School teachers and recent college graduates were the perfect candidates. Professors, college presidents and military officers recruited women from the Seven Sisters colleges in the Northeast and schoolteachers from the South. The women were tapped for the role because they were skilled in both math and language, andthey also had to answer a couple of questions. According to CNN, if the women liked crosswords and weren't engaged, they were considered suitable for the job. During this time period, it was assumed that married women would leave the workforce; in reality, married women such as Beatrice Schilling and Hedy Lamar were inventing new military technologies. At the height of the codebreaking program, there were approximately 4,000 women at a U.S. Navy code-breaking facility at what is now the Department of Homeland Security in Washington, D.C., and 7,000 women at Arlington Hall in Arlington, VA.  Codebreakers and Cryptology These young women pioneered data encrypting and invented early cybersecurity techniques that are still used today. According to Smithsonian, the women had to work through endless code and cipher systems, which were often layered for maximum confusion. They would spend days staring at strings of letters, trying to make sense of the scrambled messages. They might, for example, be looking at a Japanese message that was spelled out in Roman letters and then mixed up. The work was tedious, and there was no rulebook, so the women learned as they went. They used certain tricks to find patterns in the nonsensical messages, such as finding frequently used letters or looking for the coded version of "begin message here," which would give the codebreaker a place to start. These techniques helped form the basis for modern military communication, data security and encryption. They Helped End The War WW2 codebreakers were an integral part of military operations, although they didn't get credit for it. In fact, the first American to learn that WW2 was over was a female codebreaker who was head of a U.S. Army language unit. Smithsonian reports that Virginia D. Aderholt deciphered and translated the message from Japan to Switzerland (who remained neutral during the war) declaring their unconditional surrender in 1945. She decoded the message, which was then rushed to President Harry S. Truman, effectively ending the war. Aderholt was one of many exceptional women who eavesdropped on Japan and Germany to get ahead. They provided intelligence that helped Allied forces sink enemy supply ships and gun down the plane of Isoroku Yamato, "the architect of Pearl Harbor," according to Smithsonian. Female codebreakers figured out precisely where the Japanese army was located and where they were likely to be moving; discovered the origins and destinations of radio signals; and tracked the location and movement of troops. Mundy told CNN that without the WW2 codebreakers, the attack on Pearl Harbor could have been even worse. Agnes Driscoll, for example, was working on Japanese fleet code for more than a decade. She diagnosed how their system worked, figured out how to read Japanese naval communications and shared her knowledge with the male naval officers who went to the Pacific (and got the credit). The WW2 codebreakers were almost too good at their jobs. Toward the end of the war, they were supplying more information on Japanese supply ships that the military could keep up with, according to Smithsonian. Even after the war ended, the women kept the secret about what they were really doing to help with the war effort. Many of them went home, while others stayed in the intelligence community and ended up in high-ranking positions — some even outranking their military husbands.

WW2 Codebreakers Secretly Hacked Military Messages

  Autonomous vehicles are at the cutting edge of today's defense technology. Long familiar in the form of guided missiles — and, even earlier, the torpedo — autonomous war vehicles are now taking on a far wider variety of roles. In addition to functioning as weapons in their own right, as missiles and torpedoes do, autonomous military craft now also serve as platforms for launching other weapons, as well as providing reconnaissance. They do so not only in the air and at sea but also on land, where their roles include disarming or safely detonating IEDs (improvised explosive devices) such as roadside bombs. The growing capabilities of autonomous vehicles is being driven by new generations of computers and sensors that make these vehicles "smarter" than ever before. But all of their military missions, whether new or long established, share the common goal of protecting troops by advancing into dangerous, hostile environments ahead of them.  Enable targeting cookies to view this content.  It Came From Beneath the Sea We think of them as a new technology, but today's autonomous vehicles are products of a long evolution. Their ancestor, the self-propelled naval torpedo, first went to sea nearly 150 years ago. The autonomous capability of early torpedoes was limited to a pressure valve that controlled the depth at which the torpedo ran. Later, a gyroscope was added to help keep it on course. Even with very limited self-steering capabilities, torpedoes transformed war at sea, making even the most powerful and heavily armored battleships vulnerable to underwater attack. As Jimmy Stamp reports at Smithsonian, during World War I, the U.S. applied the same principle to "aerial torpedoes" — essentially biplane cruise missiles — though none were ready for use in the war. During World War II, Germany launched thousands of V1 and V2 missiles, and the U.S. also made some use of guided weapons in the closing months of the war. By the 1950s, guided missiles were widespread, and their guidance systems became increasingly sophisticated. But missiles only need to be smart enough to track a target and crash into it (or explode close enough to destroy it). More complex missions, such as requiring a pilotless aircraft to land safely for reuse, were beyond the capability of existing guidance technologies.   Driving on Other Planets Space exploration gave a key boost to autonomous vehicle technology, according to the Computer History Museum's blog. Space probes use guidance technology similar to that of missiles, but designers also began developing wheeled rovers to explore the surface of Mars. Due to radio transmission lag, these vehicles could not simply be driven by remote control — they needed some ability to make their own driving choices. Space technology, military requirements and the effort to develop robocars for highway use have all come together to produce the current — and still fast-evolving — generation of autonomous vehicles for military missions. But autonomous-vehicle capabilities are also still emerging from the sea. The Navy has become a key player in autonomous technology because of the enormous range of operating environments it must face. Not only must the Navy deal with airborne and underwater threats; amphibious and Marine operations may require the ability to come ashore onto dry land as well. The Navy's MQ-8C Fire Scout autonomous helicopter is typical of the emerging generation of autonomous vehicles performing naval missions. Already deployed from large naval ships, the Fire Scout can also operate from the relatively small LCS (Littoral Control Ship), designed for inshore waters, according to USNI. [skyword_iframe src="//www.youtube.com/embed/AaG2EDPVBqc" width="560" height="315" ] These smaller ships, more subject to the heave of the sea, make aircraft operations exceptionally challenging, while the coastal environment poses complex threats from aircraft to small boats to mines. The Fire Scout can be tailored with mission packages to support all of these roles while minimizing the need place sailors or Marines at risk in high-threat environments. Even closer inshore, reports the Office of Naval Research, the Navy and Marine Corps are testing autonomous amphibious vehicles capable of "hitting the beach" and moving inland to provide up-front support for Marines.  You can play a part in the next generation of autonomous vehicles at Northrop Grumman.

When Autonomous Vehicles Go to War

 Howard Aiken conceptualized and developed the world's first large-scale computer. While he was working on his doctoral thesis at Harvard, Aiken had to solve nonlinear differential equations, which were tedious and too complex for calculators to handle. This dilemma gave him the idea to create a calculator that was powerful enough to handle advanced mathematics.Mark I Together with a small team of engineers, including pioneering computer programmer Grace Hopper, Aiken spent five years designing and building a massive electromechanical computer. It cost $250,000 to build, equivalent to $3.4 million today. The Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, nicknamed the Mark I, was unveiled and put to work in 1944.  It was a cumbersome, noisy machine made of nearly 760,000 parts. Hardly resembling today's sleek touchscreen computers, the Mark I filled an entire room with clicking metal parts. It used prepunched paper tape for input and typewriters for output. Mark I was slow but steady, and stayed in use for a decade. It took between three and six seconds just to add two numbers and it could run continuously for 24 hours a day, seven days a week. It was clunky, mechanical, and and slow, but Howard Aiken's innovative early computer paved the way for today's advanced digital technology. Today a computer of that size would be capable of computing, storing, analyzing and communicating enormous amounts of data much more quickly. For example, Northrop Grumman is developing an Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) system of satellites with a payload that delivers the new XDR (Extreme Data Rate) communications services with data rates as fast as 8.192 Mbps per user.A Remarkable Career Creating the Mark I was just the first highlight of Howard Aiken's rich career. He was an electrical engineer, a mathematician, a physicist, a naval officer and ultimately a computer scientist. At Harvard, he taught applied mathematics and directed the Harvard Computation Laboratory. He also developed the country's first master's and doctoral programs in computer science. He mentored many of the world's first computer scientists and directed a team that published fundamental research in switching theory, data processing, and computing components and circuits. During World War II, Aiken and his team used the Mark I for strategic wartime work. They solved top-secret calculations such as computing rocket trajectories, gunnery, ballistics and naval design. His team also designed later versions of the computer that were used for scientific research and military calculations.Howard Aiken's Legacy Continues Today When Aiken passed away in 1973, the New York Times published his obituary with the heading, "Howard H. Aiken, Built Computer." He was quoted as saying, "The only advantage of computers is greatly increased speed. But they can act only on information fed into them. And such information depends on the judgment of executives. Executive decisions may be speeded by its results." He was speaking during the early age of computers, but his words are more relevant today than ever, with automation in just about every workplace. The Mark I and Aiken's complete body of work are the foundation for modern day computing. He gave computer scientists the tools that evolved into today's vibrant information technology field. Now, with the proliferation of IoT, social media and electronic gadgets, sensors and systems are everywhere so an overwhelming amount of data is available. Aiken's work — building the machine and painstakingly documenting mathematical tables — gives us the ability to make sense of big data. Aiken couldn't possibly have imagined the rich and varied ways that his calculating machine and its successors would be used today.

Howard Aiken: The Original Computer Scientist

Cyberwar has posed a danger to our nation since the birth of the internet, since any information that can be accessed online through multiple locations is inherently insecure. In the 1983 movie "WarGames," Matthew Broderick plays a teenaged computer geek who accidentally hacks into a military supercomputer and almost starts World War III. This hyperbolic plot actually led President Ronald Reagan to create the first presidential directive on cybersecurity. Acceleration Over the Past Decade Today, cyberwar is an even more serious threat to national security. While we might think of powerful weapons as being physical objects, cyberweapons can steal information. The U.S. military has an arsenal of weapons and sophisticated intelligence, but our high-tech systems also leave us vulnerable to cyberattacks.  Enable targeting cookies to view this content. There has been an increased frequency and sophistication of cyberattacks in recent years. Over the last decade, battlefields have changed, and combat in cyberspace is tricky because it is invisible and unpredictable. According to the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), "Cyberspace is now recognized as a critical domain of operations by the U.S. military and its protection is a national security issue." Stuxnet was the first known attack that allowed hackers to manipulate physical objects in the real-world. The Stuxnet worm, which targets industrial control systems, sabotaged the Iranian nuclear industry by attacking uranium sites and making centrifuges explode. In 2012, whistleblower Edward Snowden revealed that the U.S. and Israel were behind this cyberweapon, ABC News explained. What Cyberwar Looks Like The key to thriving in the modern world is brain over brawn. In business and in battle, information is the new weapon, and it can cause more physical damage than you might expect. As state-sponsored hackers get to work, new types of threats emerge. Cyberespionage involves stealing secrets and obtaining sensitive classified information for military advantage. Another type of cyberweapon involves denial of service, where a computer worm can intentionally overload a federal government system, shutting it down. Hackers can steal intellectual property and disrupt financial systems, such as the Israeli Tel Aviv stock exchange in 2012. They can also destroy or disable critical infrastructure, such as radar, communications systems, power grids and transportation systems.   Even messing with email can have deadly consequences. National Security Agency (NSA) analysts have supported war fighters in Iraq and Afghanistan. By creating false messages and intercepting real ones, they created confusion and distrust among Al-Qaeda. Using these techniques allowed them to lure enemies into traps, which helped kill more than 4,000 insurgents, according to the NSA. Battlefields Without Boundaries In an interview with NPR, foreign affairs journalist Fred Kaplan said, "You can count how many intercontinental ballistic missiles each side has. How do you know what kind of cyber tools and techniques one side might have developed? It's invisible." Since our critical systems are online, they're intrinsically vulnerable. Therefore, defense involves early detection of threats and designing software that's resilient enough to be repaired quickly. The military must train troops for futuristic battle — cyberwar — while embracing ancient techniques as a backup plan. The U.S. Navy, for example, is training its officers to navigate using stars just in case GPS systems get hacked. In today's battleground, information management technologies like Northrop Grumman's Cyber Warfare Integration Network can link weapon systems together in a network, making the whole stronger than the sum of its parts. This capability empowers our military but makes operations more complicated. In cyberspace, we also lose traditional boundaries, such as borders between countries and the separation between the private sector and government.

Cyberwar: The Most Stealthy Weapon Is Information

From space travel to the World Wide Web, email to nanoscale robots, humanity's constant drive for improvement and innovation has changed the course of history. So hop aboard and get comfortable — the time machine is all fired up and ready to relive the top scientific discoveries of decades past. Let's go!  Today we're heading to the last decade of the 20th century for science that's hiding in plain sight: stealth technology. '90s Kids Remember... Technology in the '90s wasn't subtle. While advancements in '60s microchips, '70s PCs and '80s cellular solutions made it possible to reduce overall size and boost processing power, the 1990s harnessed this unparalleled power to create cultural novelties like virtual pet, keychain-sized Tamagotchi, hand-held voice recorders like the TalkBoy and instantly recognizable computer solutions like the gummy-colored 1998 iMacs. But scientists were also at work behind the scenes streamlining a breakthrough in stealth technology. Let's break down what it does, why it matters and what comes next for stealth. Now You See It In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that when a radio wave encounters an object, some of the wave is reflected back to its source. The nature of the object impacts how much of the wave is reflected and at what strength. For example, radio waves encountering precipitation will create an "echo" that provides general location data, while radio reflections from aircraft or other large objects will provide more precise positioning. Combined with the Doppler effect — which makes it possible to calculate speed based on frequency shifts in waves — radio reflectivity vastly improved human potential for perception. The military applications were obvious: Radar (radio detection and ranging) became the de facto standard to detect gunfire, locate ships and find potentially hostile aircraft. It also fueled a new branch of scientific theory: stealth technology. Now You Don't With radar stations broadcasting radio waves around the globe, military minds faced a challenge: How could they make planes disappear? Broadly speaking there are two stealth solutions: absorption and deflection. Absorption requires planes to be coated in radio-converting materials that translate electromagnetic energy to heat, or by using pyramid-like structures that capture waves and dissipate their energy by causing successive contained reflections. Deflection is — in theory — less complicated and more effective. Here, plane shapes are altered so radar pulses are deflected away from the receiver station, making it appear that there's nothing in the sky when in fact a stealth bomber or fighter jet is sailing overhead. Tacitly Tactical In 1975, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) began tapping private companies for new ways to improve stealth technology. Why? Because despite the name, no aircraft is truly "invisible" — with the right radar setup and the right operators, even well-engineered craft can be detected. The goal is to achieve "low observability" by reducing the number of aligned aircraft edges and creating shapes that allow radar to effectively slide off airplane surfaces instead of being reflected. Northrop Grumman's Tacit Blue craft leveraged new advancements in computing and processing to create smoothly flowing, complex curvature surfaces that were elegant, aerodynamic and more effective at deflecting radar than their predecessors. While Tacit Blue never engaged in active military service, its research advancements paved the way for the rapid development of stealth technology in the '90s including the F-117A Nighthawk and the B-2 bomber. As noted by Business Insider, even 30 years later the B-2 remains one of the world's most formidable military achievements. The Future of Sight Unseen So what's next for stealth technology? As noted by The Drive, "morphing wings" offer the potential to change airplane shape on-demand by seamlessly integrating flaps and joints into wings and virtually eliminating any visible control surfaces. Also in development? "Quantum radar" technologies designed to unmask stealth planes by leveraging the concept of quantum entanglement. Radar-absorbing nanomaterials may provide the scientific counterargument to quantum detection, but aren't yet viable at scale. Simply put? Commercial technology in the '90s focused on the frivolous but just out of sight. Great strides were being made in stealth solutions. As detection and reflection tools continue to evolve, it's a safe bet that this under-the-radar research still has decades of development to deliver. Up next? We crash Y2K and march into the new millennium. Join us as we take on the 21st century.  

Technology in the '90s: Hiding in Plain Sight

  The world of travel may be on the verge of getting faster — a lot faster. Researchers and industry are putting a new emphasis on hypersonics, the technology of atmospheric flight at more than five times the speed of sound, or about a mile per second. While the challenges of hypersonic flight are great, the potential is enormous, ranging from intercontinental passenger flights taking less than two hours, to achieving the dream of an aircraft that can fly into orbit and return to do it again.Breaking the Speed Barrier ... Again Only one human-piloted airplane has ever achieved hypersonic flight. As Douglas Messier writes at Space.com, this was the legendary X-15 research plane, which made its last hypersonic flight 50 years ago in 1967.  All orbital spacecraft briefly enter the hypersonic regime during their climb into space, and again when returning to Earth's atmosphere. The Space Shuttle operated as a hypersonic aircraft during re-entry, before slowing down to merely supersonic speeds. But otherwise, since 1967, hypersonic flight has been limited to a handful of unpiloted research vehicles. This limited role has been due to the technology challenges of hypersonics, which center largely around heat. Any object passing through the air at Mach 5 and above produces intense frictional heating as it pushes the air out of its path. Keeping this sheer heat from melting the airframe is the first great challenge of sustained hypersonic flight. The second heat-related challenge is keeping the heat from melting critical parts of a jet engine. This is not a problem for rocket planes such as the X-15, but the intakes of conventional jet engines and even ramjets are limited to about Mach 6 — toward the "slow" (relatively speaking!) end of the hypersonic range. So-called scramjets (for supersonic combusting ramjet, a technology that limits heat buildup) have shown promise in sustaining higher speeds without burning up.Hypersonics — Military and Civilian Potential After half a century on the back burner, what has put hypersonics back in the technology spotlight? The most immediate concerns relate to national defense, as Patrick Tucker outlines at Defense One. Like spacecraft, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) reach hypersonic speeds in the upper atmosphere. But they cannot be steered, or change course beyond very narrow limits, rendering them inflexible. In contrast, a hypersonic aircraft could change course to evade enemy attack or in response to a changing mission requirement. This is what makes hypersonic performance attractive to defense planners. What makes it critical for them is the growing capability of air defense systems that can target and shoot down merely supersonic aircraft, potentially even stealthy ones. The only way for U.S. aircraft to avoid these systems is to outrun them by reaching and sustaining hypersonic speeds. But while the first operational hypersonic planes will be military, a new generation of hypersonic airliners could follow them through the speed barrier. Supersonic transports such as the now-retired Concorde did not sufficiently reduce intercontinental travel times enough to transform commercial flying. A hypersonic transport would be another matter — making a transcontinental flight take no longer than a regional hop does today. And beyond the hypersonic transport lies the possibility of a true spaceplane, an aircraft that could take off and land like an ordinary jet, but capable of carrying payloads — and astronauts — into orbit. A hypersonic orbital spaceplane would make space travel as affordable as air travel is today. The technology of hypersonics calls for flying outside the box. This is something that Northrop Grumman has been doing since its pioneering Flying Wing took to the air in the 1940s. And as Darren Orf reports at Gizmodo, it continues to fly outside the box with proposals for hypersonic test aircraft such as the XS-1.

Hypersonics — The Far, Far Side of the Sound Barrier

Key Takeaways Tacit Blue was an experimental prototype that demonstrated that aircraft could spy on enemy operations without being detected by radar. The new stealth aircraft featured slightly curved edges that were both stealthier and more aerodynamic. The difference between Tacit Blue and Global Hawk is that the earlier aircraft helped engineers develop stealth characteristics that were critical for the latter to become the premier provider of intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance.A stealth aircraft that was built in secrecy during the 1980s sounds thrilling, but it's actually a strange-looking relic that represents a major milestone in surveillance aircraft technology. Tacit Blue — nicknamed "the whale" for its unusual shape — was an experimental prototype that demonstrated that aircraft could spy on enemy operations without being detected by radar.During its three-year secret operation, Tacit Blue helped engineers develop low-observable (i.e., stealth) characteristics that are still critical in today's military aircraft. Read on to learn more about the technology behind stealth aircraft, and the difference between Tacit Blue and Global Hawk.Undercover in the '80sMuch like many great inventions, Tacit Blue wasn't immediately successful. The aircraft was developed as part of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's (DARPA) Battlefield Surveillance Aircraft Experiment in the 1970s.DARPA asked Northrop Grumman to continue the project to create an aircraft that could observe enemies from above without being detected. To peer through the clouds to see what was happening on the ground, an advanced radar was required.Instead of adding radar equipment to an existing jet, a new aircraft was built around a large radar system that was revolutionary for its time because it could point its beam in different directions without needing to physically move. The resulting design was a rectangular aircraft with slightly rounded edges and thin wings.Prior to Tacit Blue, stealth aircraft typically featured faceted surfaces, which were good at minimizing radar detection but bad at flying aerodynamically. The "whale" proved that slightly curved edges were both stealthier and more aerodynamic than flatter designs. This revelation influenced the designs of surveillance aircraft and bombers for decades.The DescendantsDuring Operation Desert Storm in 1991, the E-8 Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System was first deployed. It used the sensor systems that were originally developed for Tacit Blue, which allowed it to determine the direction, speed and patterns of military activity of ground vehicles and helicopters.Global Hawk is an unmanned aircraft system designed to fly at high altitudes to provide near-real-time intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance. While it has been through several iterations since it debuted in 1998, the Block 30 Global Hawk carries sophisticated imaging and electronic signal sensors for situational awareness and intelligence-gathering over large geographic areas.The newer RQ-4 Global Hawk can fly at high altitudes for more than 30 hours and gather near-real-time, high-resolution imagery of large areas of land in all types of weather and during day or night. The unmanned aircraft system is like a flying robotic supercomputer. It's equipped with a synthetic aperture radar/moving target indicator, a high-resolution electro-optical digital camera and a third-generation infrared sensor. All data collected is transmitted through high bandwidth satellite communication links to ground stations for processing and exploitation.Global Hawk has amassed more than 320,000 flight hours. It has flown missions in support of military operations in Iraq, Afghanistan, North Africa and the greater Asia-Pacific region. But Global Hawk has also been used for humanitarian efforts for disaster relief in Haiti and Japan, as well as by NASA for observing weather and climate patterns. Its intelligence-gathering capabilities allow civil authorities greater ability to respond to natural disasters, conduct search-and-rescue operations and gather weather and atmospheric data to help forecasters predict the paths of storms.The difference between Tacit Blue and Global Hawk is that Tacit Blue operated in secrecy from 1982 to 1985, laid the groundwork for Global Hawk and was eventually revealed to the public in 1996. It is now on display at the National Museum of the Air Force in Dayton, Ohio (but you can also take a virtual cockpit tour from home).Learn more about Global Hawk and the latest from Northrop Grumman.

The Difference Between Tacit Blue and Global Hawk Surveillance Aircraft

Ever since the 1962 cartoon character George Jetson zipped through the skies in his avocado-green flying car, Americans have pined for one of their own. But research and development on personal air vehicles has moved at a snail's pace, with 21st century families still rolling on wheels. Now, the U.S. Air Force says it wants 30 flying cars in its fleet in the next 10 years. Innovative technology developed through the agency's Agility Prime initiative — meant to accelerate the commercial market for advanced air mobility vehicles — will not only benefit the military but finally make citizen sky pilots possible, too. That's because aircraft developed through this program, especially electric-powered machines capable of vertical takeoff and landing (EVTOL), will be low-maintenance, affordable, sustainable, quiet and safe. On top of that, they won't require runways, meaning they can take off from and land on parking lots and driveways. "We're a great bridge market to not just get companies flight hours and build competence, but to be regulators, certifiers of all types for local and state governments," Dr. Will Roper, assistant secretary of the Air Force for acquisition, technology and logistics, told reporters during a press briefing on April 29, as Military.com reports. Agility Prime Although flying cars hint at a futuristic world shimmering in high-tech wizardry, their electric engines and computer automation offer low-cost mobility and maintenance. The Air Force recognizes that these vehicles could be used to improve security, rescue troops from battlefield, sweep disaster zones for survivors and more. The agency decided to engage with the commercial sector to reduce bureaucracy and accelerate progress. It developed Agility Prime, an acquisition program that fast-tracks the contracting process to specifically develop manned or unmanned aircraft. Agility Prime provides smaller amounts of funding and access to Air Force assets, including test ranges and safety, which encourages outside investment. The goal is to help advance aircraft that could be used for civilian purposes but are also ideal for the military. The program is interested in developing three types of aircraft: one that's able to carry three to eight people to ranges greater than 100 miles, at speeds greater than 100 mph for an hour; another that can carry one or two people more than 10 miles at speeds greater than 45 mph with flight endurance greater than 15 minutes; and a third "not necessarily designed to carry occupants" but rather cargo up to 1,320 lbs, and it can fly at least 200 miles at speeds greater than 100 mph for at least 100 minutes. The Air Force is looking for prototypes by December 17, 2020. Innovative Technology  The first demonstration of a flying car with Air Force potential occurred on Thursday, Aug. 20, 2020, at Camp Mabry in Austin, Texas. Secretary of the Air Force Barbara Barrett, Chief of Staff Charles Q. Brown Jr., Chief Master Sgt. JoAnne S. Bass and leadership from the Texas National Guard watched as Matt Chasen, founder and CEO of LIFT Aircraft, flew an 18-rotor ultralight HEXA on a four-minute flight, according to an Air Force press release. Chasen founded LIFT in 2017 and announced the HEXA a year later. Its rotors are independently powered by 18 electric motors. A triply redundant flight-control computer and multiple collision sensors keep the craft stable and safe during flight, and the craft can land reliably if up to six motors are disabled. In the event of an emergency, an autonomous ballistic parachute deploys. Owners can control it with a single, three-axis joystick and need no pilot's license to fly it. Six floats offer buoyancy for safe water landings. The HEXA could be used on the battlefield, too, as an air ambulance to rescue injured soldiers. "At LIFT, we're making flying so simple, safe and inexpensive that anyone can do it with very little skill or special training. We're truly consumerizing flying for the first time in history," Chasen said in a company press release. But LIFT isn't the only company working on flying car technology. Sabrewing Aircraft has a cargo drone named Rhaegal RG-1 that can carry a payload of up to 5,400 lbs over a distance of 1,150 miles with a cruise speed of 167 mph. Beta Technologies has a winged, fully electric VTOL named Alia, and Joby Aviation has a five-seat prototype. The latter two both meet certain requirements for Agility Prime's "Area of Interest One," including the ability carry three to eight people at least 100 miles at speeds of at least 100 mph. "We now have over fifteen of the leading aircraft manufacturers in the world applying to partner with Agility Prime, with many of them already on contract," Col. Nathan Diller, AFWERX director and Agility Prime lead said at the demonstration flight in Austin. By supporting the fast development of innovative technology around personal aircraft, civilians and military personnel will benefit. The only question left is — will the flying car fold up into the size of a suitcase, just like George Jetson's? We'll have to wait and see.

The Air Force Wants a Flying Car and That Could Be Good for Civilians

What is User Experience User Experience (UX) is a holistic user-centered development process used to create more robust and capable complex systems by focusing on user needs. It is rooted in Human Factors Engineering and Ergonomics, but has shifted to include fields like Information Architecture, Human Factors, and Human-Computer Interaction, to name a few. The Journey to UX User experience has proven itself in a commercial environment to speed processes, increase capability and make tasks easier to accomplish, but it has only recently been seen in government processes. The initial launch of Healthcare.gov in October of 2013 brought user experience in this domain to the public's attention. Two hours after its launch, the site crashed. Thousands of Americans experienced the frustration of using a website that didn't yet have the capabilities they needed. A task force of commercial tech industry veterans was assembled to fix the critical issues with the site. It was up and running by December. Their success led to the creation of the U.S. Digital Service, a consultant to federal agencies like the Department of Health and Human Services to ensure the success of their digital services.  To cultivate change, they created the Digital Service Playbook. The first three plays correlate directly with UX principles: "1. Understand what people need.  2. Address the whole experience, from start to finish  3. Make it simple and intuitive"  This playbook is being implemented across the entire government because the U.S Digital Service's goals are backed by the Executive Office of the President of the United States.  Perhaps one of the most important government departments to implement these changes is the U.S. Department of Defense. The Defense Digital Service was created in 2015 as an agency team of the larger U.S. Digital Service to transform this critical department without jeopardizing national security. Sounds simple right? However, the result has been overwhelming success. Projects like Hack the Pentagon have increased cyber security and partnerships with branches of the armed forces have increased the usability of software tools and systems for military personnel. And really, when you're making life and death decisions, wouldn't you want the best information and the best tools? Where We're Headed The effort to streamline software development and implement process change has led to changes in the way government departments interact with their contractors and vendors. In the National Defense Authorization Act for the 2019 fiscal year, the same requirements implemented by the U.S. Digital Service for government agencies have also became requirements for defense contractors. Many contractors operate in both commercial and government sectors and have seen the same benefits from those processes even on their government contracts. As Chief Technologist for Human-Machine Teaming at Northrop Grumman, Neta Ezer said, "User Experience is a key technology capability area for Northrop Grumman, helping the company to keep pace with the growing desire by the Government to have technology that improves the effectiveness and efficiency of the user to complete the mission."  One such program is the Integrated Air and Missile Defense Battle Command System (IBCS), a contract held by Northrop Grumman. User-centered design practices have been a part of the IBCS effort since the contract's original award in 2008. UX practitioners working on the program regularly meet with end users to determine their needs and address them with system capabilities. User testing allows the team to validate their designs. Fostering relationships with users has empowered them to bring issues or needs to the attention of development teams so they can be addressed before the system is fielded. The result is a more robust system that users already know and trust. The success of UX on programs like IBCS has led to the creation of internal programs that cultivate user-centered design and development practices at Northrop Grumman to ensure the operational success of their products.  "Northrop [Grumman] has incorporated User Experience as a standard practice as part of our 'Engineering Playbook', offering a UX Academy for internal training and development, " says Sandy Forney, Director of the Engineering Center of Excellence at Northrop Grumman.  Progress is just beginning. The future holds big changes for the defense industry.

UX: Transforming Defense

Key Takeaways  The U.S. Government's unidentified aerial phenomena (UAPS) report does not confirm (or deny) the existence of aliens. Current reports of unidentified objects by military aviators are considered to be credible, per the report. UFO sightings tend to congregate around military installations, such as Area 51.In a word, no.Let's get that out of the way up front: Aliens are not coming to conquer Earth or capture the population despite what some alien enthusiasts may claim. Still, the recent unexplained aerial phenomena (UAPS) report raises some interesting questions about our place in the universe and the possibility that we are not alone.Our Alien ObsessionHuman history is replete with alien interest. As noted by Scientific American, one of the first mentions of extraterrestrial life came from a novel written in 200 AD by Lucian of Samosata called Vera Historia. In it, he describes a journey to the moon that includes strange creatures such as three-headed vultures, birds made of grass and humans who sweat milk instead of water. Comedy is also a popular alien interpretation, with works like The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy imagining what would happen if our planet was destroyed — not out of malice, but by aliens building an interstellar bypass.According to Politico, this fictional fascination with aliens also made its way into the realm of reality. In 1995, real estate magnate Robert Bigelow created the National Institute for Discovery Science (NIDS) — his first meetings in Las Vegas included a few scientists and engineers, a CIA spy, a former army colonel and two Apollo astronauts. Their common characteristic? They all felt government officials weren't giving enough consideration to potential alien efforts on Earth.The UAPS ReportTo some degree, the modern-day efforts of alien hunters have been successful: On June 25, 2021, the Office of the Director of National Intelligence released its preliminary assessment of unidentified aerial phenomena. The report is intended to provide "an overview for policymakers of the challenges associated with characterizing the potential threat posed by UAP while also providing a means to develop relevant processes, policies, technologies, and training for the U.S. military and other U.S. Government (USG) personnel if and when they encounter UAP, so as to enhance the Intelligence Community's (IC) ability to understand the threat."But what does this mean in practice? Put simply, the government cannot confirm or deny the existence of aliens. Still, there are nuggets of fascinating information contained in the report. Here are a few key takeaways.Not Everything Has an Easy AnswerAs a recent CNN piece examining the report noted, the UAP data breaks down sightings into five broad categories: airborne clutter, natural atmospheric phenomena, USG or U.S. developmental programs, foreign systems and "other." It's the "other" that's interesting, as it effectively acknowledges that there are unexplainable observations. While it may eventually be determined that these cases are tied to more familiar operations, they open the door to creative analysis in the meantime.Current Reports Are CredibleThe report also notes that many of the incidents reported were observed "firsthand by military aviators and were collected from systems we considered to be reliable." In other words, these aren't simply eyes-on observations made by individual citizens; they're sightings reported by trained military staff and backed by trusted technologies. While this doesn't necessarily imply that aliens are causing these phenomena, it does suggest a need for further investigation.Interesting Actions Were ObservedIn most cases, sightings could be explained by considering relevant variables, but the report states that "In 18 incidents, described in 21 reports, observers reported unusual UAP movement patterns or flight characteristics. Some UAP appeared to remain stationary in winds aloft, move against the wind, maneuver abruptly, or move at considerable speed, without discernible means of propulsion. In a small number of cases, military aircraft systems processed radio frequency (RF) energy associated with UAP sightings."This means there were instances in which personnel saw objects behaving in ways that weren't consistent with current aerospace engineering limitations.Social Stigmas May Have Reduced Total SightingsThere's also a section of the report that addresses the impact of social stigma around observing, reporting and discussing UAP sightings, which may have kept total sighting numbers artificially low. While more experts are now willing to engage with the subject seriously, the report notes that "reputational risk may keep observers silent, complicating scientific pursuit of the topic."Data Clustering Is CommonSites such as Area 51 have long been suggested as secret alien investigation facilities, but as a recent Nextgov article notes, the report data makes it clear that UFO sightings tend to cluster around military installations. This makes sense, as these bases are often equipped with advanced defensive and sensor technology that makes them far more likely to detect potential visitors.It's also worth noting that the declassified report is only part of a larger whole. According to the Nextgov piece, "It's important to note that the unclassified version of the task force's report is only a few preliminary pages. The videos, photos and data which I and my colleagues in the Pentagon were privy to were not included."Making Sense of UFO SightingsThe fact that the report didn't provide definitive answers regarding certain UFO sightings hasn't stopped rampant speculation, which has mostly involved reading between the lines or making incredibly broad assumptions.For some, the revelation that U.S. defense programs didn't have standardized detection capabilities until 2019 suggests a deliberate suppression of data designed to keep the public in the dark. Others, such as controversial academic Avi Loeb, have claimed that the report's findings support the notion that aliens have visited Earth. Loeb argues that the report lends credence to his theory that Oumuamua, the cigar-shaped asteroid that passed through our solar system in 2018, was actually an alien craft, despite the fact that no evidence was found to support this conclusion.The release of the report and serious consideration of possible extraterrestrial interaction are significant steps forward for the government, which has historically been silent on the topic. From the establishment of standardized sensor networks to the acknowledgment that there are some things people have seen that simply can't be explained, the report sets the stage for a scientific, rather than speculative, framework to help humankind discover if humans really are alone out here — or if cosmic neighbors are closer than most people realize.As the UAPS report puts it, "Explaining UAP will require analytic, collection and resource investment."Discover how the Sharshade program may help us pinpoint planets with potential alien life. 

Exploring the UAPS Report: Is Alien Invasion Imminent?

Since July 4, 1918, U.S. troops have fought alongside Australian forces in every major conflict, including both Gulf Wars and Afghanistan. This year is extra special, as the U.S. and Australia celebrate 100 years of mateship — a quintessential Australian word that neatly captures the loyalty, friendship, trust and sacrifice of being mates. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Forged Under Fire
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Australia—U.S. relations began in the World War I trenches. The upcoming Fourth of July marks the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Hamel and the first non-U.S. command of American troops in battle. Under Australian Gen. Sir John Monash, the combined troops captured the town of Hamel in northern France in just 93 minutes while pushing back the German offensive line, according to HistoryNet.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The History Channel pointed to the Battle of Hamel as the first time battle tanks and aircraft were used to provide supplies and ammunition to troops. Monash was lauded for his success, and soldiers from both sides received medals and recognition for their bravery.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A History of Mutual Respect
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Combined military actions fostered mutual respect between the two forces. During World War II, Australian and U.S. troops fought together in the Asia-Pacific theater. The History Channel reports that during the Battle of Mount Tambu, Australian stretcher bearer Leslie "Bull" Allen single-handedly carried 12 injured U.S. soldiers to safety. For his bravery and inspiration, he was awarded the U.S. Silver Star.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Photo Source: Wikipedia/Gordon Herbert Short 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
U.S. troops also protected northern Australia from Japanese invasion, according to Aerotech News. U.S. naval action, supported by Australian naval intelligence in the Battle of the Coral Sea, diminished the Japanese naval threat when many Australian troops were fighting in Europe, as noted by the Pacific Aviation Museum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Following WWII, the U.S. and Australia formalized their unique relationship with the ANZUS Treaty in 1951, pledging support to one another if under attack. The treaty was first invoked by Australia in the aftermath of 9/11. The US Department of State maintains that Australia—U.S. relations "enhance the stability and resiliency of the Asia-Pacific region."
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Cultural Togetherness
 
Cmdr. Andrew Burnett of the Royal Australian Navy acknowledged that 100 years of mateship goes beyond military action for these two countries. The Commonwealth's first accredited foreign diplomat was sent to the U.S. in 1940; nine years later, Australia and the United States signed a treaty establishing the Fulbright program in Australia, an educational partnership between the two countries that allows U.S. students to study in Australia and vice versa.
Since 2004, the U.S. has officially recognized trade with Australia with a Free Trade Agreement, according to the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative.
 
Celebrating 100 Years of Mateship
The U.S. State Department describes Australia as "a vital ally, partner, and friend of the United States," while Australia and the U.S. "maintain a robust relationship underpinned by shared democratic values, common interests, and cultural affinities."
Northrop Grumman's presence Down Under is the perfect example of continued military support between the two countries, working with the Royal Australian Navy, the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force in a variety of programs. 
The U.S. and Australia have shared a unique diplomatic and strategic partnership for 100 years — a worthy cause for celebration.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Better Together — 100 Years of Mateship Between Australia and the U.S.

 Camouflage — the technique of eluding notice by blending into the surroundings — is something that people have utilized since the earliest times. It can be used by the hunter or the hunted. A tiger can blend in with the dappled light of a forest or jungle, and failure to notice the tiger can be deadly, while the zebra's stripes may help the animal blend into the light and shade of tall grasses. Even as it provides concealment, a camouflage pattern can also be dramatically aesthetic — tiger stripes being a perfect example. So it should come as no surprise that camouflage clothing, originally designed to conceal the wearer, can also make a powerful fashion statement. More surprising, perhaps, is the potential for new materials science to take camouflage clothing to a new level, whether for concealment, a strong statement or perhaps both. The Science and Art of Concealment In nature (and in clothing), camouflage can take a variety of forms. Most often, it is based on relatively subtle and subdued patterns that can blend into a variety of surroundings fairly well. Present-day military camouflage clothing, with its dappled tan or green patterns, is of this type. Other types of camouflage feature dramatic patterns that do not so much conceal as confuse. Enemies or predators can see it easily enough, but won't be sure what they are seeing. This uncertainty, and resulting hesitation, can be equally effective as outright concealment in preventing an attack. These types of camouflage do not change, though how they appear may depend on the light. But in nature, some types of camouflage actively change in order to blend in better with the surroundings. Chameleons provide a classic example of this sophisticated type of camouflage: Their skin can change color and pattern to match its background. Three Types of Camouflage For soldiers, along with hunters and some others, camouflage clothing is a purely practical choice. But fashion designers have long looked to the military as one style of inspiration they can draw upon in order to create an effect. Thus the military camouflage look has made its way to the urban storefront — where its purpose is more to draw attention than distract it. "Dazzle" camouflage has also drawn attention as a way to, well, dazzle the viewers of an outfit. But the third type of camouflage — adaptive camouflage that changes color or pattern in response to its surroundings, as a chameleon does — has been absent from the fashion runway, for the simple reason that fabrics capable of producing that effect were not commonplace. But thanks to materials science, that is starting to change. Technology Takes Aim at the Fashion Runway  As David Nield writes at Science Alert, the key to taking camouflage to a new stylistic level lies in a technology known as thermochromic pigments. These pigments change color in response to changes in temperature, which in turn can be controlled by electric currents. Designer—researcher Laura Devendorf and her team "coated conductive threads with thermochromic pigments and explored how [they] could leverage the geometries of weaving and crochet to create unique aesthetic effects and power efficiencies." Current versions of these chameleon-like fabrics change color too slowly to have the desired dramatic effect. But that is what research and development is striving to change. Other designers are exploring similar technologies. Sarah Griffiths of the Daily Mail notes that Budapest designer Judit Eszter Karpati is combining thermochromic threads with computer technology and soundtracks to create what she calls chromosonic fabric that changes color and pattern in response to music or other sound patterns. These technologies are not emerging in isolation. They are part of a broader development in the interaction of light and materials that is also bringing the invisibility cloak into the realm of the feasible. Invisibility itself is a form of camouflage, but the goal of fashion designers who are pursuing technologies such as thermochromic pigments is not to make the wearer invisible, even figuratively, but rather to make the wearer stand out in a crowd. There are two related lessons to be learned from the technology frontier of fashion-conscious camouflage clothing. No concern — such as camouflage — is too practical, and no technology is too cutting edge, for human creativity to apply to the goal of making us look good.

Camouflage Clothing — When Concealment Becomes Style

 Octopuses do it. Cuttlefish and flounders do it. And James Bond spied on villains in an Aston Martin that had its own cloaking device in the film "Die Another Day." "It" is adaptive camouflage, a type of stealth technology that could lead to cloaking devices for military and many other uses. Keep in mind that true invisibility is the stuff of science fiction for now. Even if an object is indistinguishable from its surroundings, it's still there. It still has mass and may still emit a heat signature or sound (which is why Harry Potter had to be quiet while creeping around Hogwarts under his invisibility cloak). Scientists have discovered several methods in nature that could also be adapted to bring color-changing technology into the industrial world. Northrop Grumman has supported research into stealth technology over the years, including the Rochester Cloak, a system of lenses that creates the illusion of invisibility. Nature's Stealth Machines As researchers have uncovered the secrets behind the amazing mimicry skills of some sea creatures, the possibility of a cloaking device is coming closer to reality. We have a lot to learn from these creatures which can completely change their coloring to match their surroundings in seconds, blending into the sea floor or fading into the sunlight near the surface. The bottom-dwelling peacock flounder can disappear into a stony seafloor to wait for prey. The flounder's color-matching ability is so advanced it can match a checkerboard pattern placed beneath it. Mechanisms behind the flounder's abilities are not fully understood but it's believed to involve the release of hormones that bring different pigments to the surface of the skin based on what the fish sees. For a camouflage system, cameras would replace the flounder's stalked eyes and send signals to adaptive camouflage coatings material, perhaps made of meta materials. For the cephalopods — octopus, squid, cuttlefish — their skin contains pigment-rich cells known as chromatophores that react to external stresses such as a predator to change color to hide or communicate with others. Scientists have begun replicating this process, called visual appearance modulation, with a new multilayered camouflage material. The top layer is filled with temperature-sensitive dye, which sits atop a layer of white reflective tiles composed of circuitry that controls the temperature of the dye layer. The foundation is a photoreceptor layer that analyzes the light streaming through notches in the upper layers so the system knows when and how to change color. Color changes can happen in two to three seconds. However, the system is still only a pale imitation of the sophistication that an octopus lying in wait for prey can muster on the ocean floor. In addition to military camouflage applications, the technology could be used for clothing that changes color, or architectural features such as wall coverings that adapt to lighting changes. Cloaking Devices on the Road Adaptive camouflage systems built on these findings have been tested by U.S. and British armed forces, allowing soldiers to disappear from sight, and also be shielded from thermal imaging detection. In the aforementioned Bond film, the MI6 boffins equipped an Aston Martin V12 Vanquish with a coating that projected the car's surroundings onto the car's surface so that it blended into its environment. While that was the stuff of movie magic, Mercedes-Benz developed a similar system and gave it some real-world testing. The new zero emissions F-Cell car was equipped with a camera on the right side, and a sheet of video display material on the left. The camera shot video on the passenger side of the car and displayed it in real time on the driver side of the automobile. Pedestrians and drivers had the sensation of seeing right through the car. While hiding in plain sight is an obvious goal for military applications, there are commercial applications as well in safety enhancements, education, arts and entertainment. It will take time for researchers to turn nature's secrets into products for the marketplace, but adaptive camouflage could be ready for the spotlight in a surprisingly short time.

Cloaking Device Device Development Inspired by Natural Stealth

A revolution in military technology. Those words are likely to evoke images of superweapons, or perhaps a new generation of sensors and software. But the next revolution in military technology may center around one of the humblest yet most ubiquitous items of military equipment: the service member's uniform. Called second skin, this technology aims at producing fabrics that "breathe," keeping the wearer comfortable while protecting against chemical and biological agents. On the battlefield, these futuristic military uniforms can make the difference between effectiveness and incapacity, between life and death. Beyond the battlefield, the same technology can save first responders and other emergency workers - as well as serve a host of everyday and industrial purposes. A Breath of Life The modern era of chemical and biological warfare agents began a hundred years ago with the use of chlorine and mustard gas during World War I. Commanders soon discovered that the military value of these agents lay not only in their ghastly effects but on the protective measures they forced on defenders. American troops deployed in the Middle East and Afghanistan face the brutal challenges of wearing full protective gear while fighting in an extreme climate against enemies believed to possess and use chemical warfare agents. Gas masks and other protective gear are clumsy and generally miserable to wear. A soldier encased in full protection against chemical and biological agents soon becomes bathed in sweat, overheated and exhausted. Strenuous activity is misery at best, and soon becomes all but impossible — and fresh air is at a premium. Alertness and mental focus are worn down. In these conditions, soldiers do not fight well. The solution to this problem is protective gear that "breathes" — that lets air flow through, and especially allows water vapor out — so that perspiration can evaporate, the body's primary cooling mechanism. Yet the gear must still block chemical and biological agents. And that is where second-skin technology comes into play. But this technology is really just one application of a broader revolution centering on carbon nanotubes. Carbon Nanotubes Go Big From the dawn of modern chemistry more than a century ago, carbon has been recognized for its ability to build larger and more complex molecular structures than any other element. Organic chemistry is largely about the things you can do with carbon; it is known for good reason as the building block of life. Starting around the 1970s, what may be called the architectural potential of carbon grew in attention, and nanogloss dates the first true nanotubes — essentially nano-scale pipes or hoses — to 1991. These pipes, built of linked carbon atoms, can be only a few times larger in diameter than individual atoms, a fineness that earlier engineers could scarcely have dreamed or even conceived of. Carbon nanotubes have a broad range of potential uses; for example, they can function as fantastically strong nano-ropes. As reported by Engadget, researchers are also working on developing them as transistors more compact than can be achieved with silicon. But it is their ability to function as pipelines, writes Anne M. Stark of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, that has researchers developing fabrics with membranes that incorporate carbon nanotubes. These nanotubes — five thousand times smaller than the diameter of a human hair — provide channels that air and water vapor can pass through, but also block biological agents. Additionally, technology companies with a specialization in aerospace and global security— including Northrop Grumman — are doing significant research in conjunction with academia and government labs. Carbon nanotubes are not restricted to second skins; they are seeing broad usage in other innovations including flexible electronics, advanced manufacturing of aerospace components such as unique optical structures and even the potential development of space elevators. Even viruses are too bulky to pass through the nanotubes, though air and water vapor pass so freely that the fabric "breathes" better than popular commercial fabrics such as Gore-Tex. Chemical agents are more compact, and could slip through even a nanotube. The solution is to make the nanotubes smart by fitting them with functional groups of molecules that will act as gatekeepers to block the threat. Says Livermore team leader Kuang Jen Wu, the fabric "will be like a smart second skin that responds to the environment." The researchers believe that these new, breathable and smart protective fabrics — which may cover any fit of full body clothing plus helmet and gloves, making it resemble present-day combat gear — could be ready for the battlefield within 10 years. But this technology will not stay confined to the battlefield. Like technologies from radio to paramedic services, second skin will soon find civilian applications beyond futuristic military uniforms. Shields Into Plowshares The first civilian application for second-skin technology will surely be for hazmat teams and other first responders. Emergency workers also face the threat of deadly agents they must be protected against, combined with the need for strength and alertness that are quickly sapped by conventional protective gear. Beyond the realm of emergency services, second-skin technology is sure to find a host of other uses, practical and perhaps fashionable as well. Protection against dangerous biological agents will also protect against features of the environment such as hay-fever pollen that can be annoying even if not dangerous. As the technology matures, other health-related capabilities are sure to emerge from second-skin technology. More broadly, the ability of fabrics to "breathe" is crucial to comfort particularly in warm weather, making this technology applicable to everything we wear, as well as to curtains, tents, and flexible dividers of all sorts, as well as industrial filters — a range of uses along the whole spectrum from utilitarian to fashionable. Smart breathing adds yet another range of potential uses. By responding to pheromones released by the body, for example, these fabrics might even respond to our moods. Who knows what fashion designers will come up with once they get their hands on smart fabrics?

The Second Skin: Military Uniforms Go High Tech

It's been more than 45 years since the last U.S. astronaut left the moon. And while NASA is finally making plans to send humans back to the moon and eventually to Mars, the technology we'll use to get us there promises to be much different from the approaches we've used up until now. In-space manufacturing and assembly technology, for example, could help reduce the high costs and complexity associated with traditional launch systems, two factors that have hampered the quest for space colonization. "Manufacturing and assembling systems in space allows us to think about fundamentally new ways to design, launch, deploy and even repair space systems on orbit," says Howard Eller, an Advanced Missions Tech Fellow with Northrop Grumman. "Instead of producing a satellite on Earth and figuring out how to fold it up and launch it on top of a large rocket, we could produce large structural elements in space, launch payloads separately on smaller rockets, then integrate the payloads with the structure in space." Since much of the satellite's structure would be produced in space and thus not affected by the force of gravity, he adds, it could be designed with simpler, less costly, less rigid materials while not sacrificing its on-orbit performance. Another way to reduce launch costs would be to launch a satellite in discrete pieces packed compactly inside a rocket fairing, then use 3D printing processes and robots to perform final assembly on orbit. Tipping to the Future Both of these visions will require maturation of manufacturing and assembly systems for space environments. Through its "Tipping Point Technologies" program, NASA has selected nine companies, including Made in Space (MIS), Moffett Field, Calif., to mature technologies required to stimulate the commercial space industry and enable capabilities needed for future NASA missions. Northrop Grumman is a member of the MIS-led team, which is developing the Versatile In-Space Robotic Precision Manufacturing and Assembly System, aka Archinaut. The team is driving toward a ground demonstration of this robotic 3-D manufacturing system in a simulated space environment in summer 2018. The team hopes Archinaut will be selected by NASA for a future in-space flight demonstration. To date, MIS has demonstrated the ability to 3D print simple, one-material parts at its Additive Manufacturing Facility inside the International Space Station. The company is printing parts using a variety of materials including PEI/PC (polyetherimide/polycarbonate), a high performance polymer; ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) plastic; and green polyethylene. Building Stuff Outside The long game, of course, is to produce complex, multi-material objects "outside," in the harsh environment of space. Initially, systems such as Archinaut will focus on manufacturing structures such as reflectors, antennae, trusses and booms — objects that can be extruded into objects of any desired length using 3D printing, then assembled and integrated by robots into large space structures. Eventually, this production process will include additional types of materials such as conductors (metals) and insulators, which would make it possible, for example, to produce structures with any required power circuitry integrated directly into the structure. For its part, Northrop Grumman is helping MIS develop space-compatible 3D printing materials that can perform well and withstand the extreme temperatures and radiation levels of space. "The end goal is to be able to fabricate parts with a polymer material that is light, strong, dense and stable under extreme temperature conditions," says Eric Fodran, a materials specialist with Northrop Grumman. "Most importantly, the material has to be conductive, to ensure that it won't build up static electricity that could discharge and damage satellite electronics." Resupply Redefined "In-space manufacturing could create a new 'on-demand' paradigm for repairing or providing new equipment for orbiting or deep space platforms," said Lauren Smith, a Northrop Grumman program manager for applied research. "Instead of bringing to space redundant spares of components or equipment that might be needed over time," she explains, "astronauts could simply 'order' new parts from Earth as needed. The appropriate print file would be 'beamed up' to a 3D printer in space, where astronauts could make the needed repairs." Raw materials will still have to be ferried to space using conventional launch systems. This approach promises to be less costly and logistically simpler, however, than producing structures on Earth and delivering them to space. In coming years, adds Smith, the aerospace industry will be debating how and under what circumstances this type of manufacturing would benefit space missions. "On-orbit, on-demand production of components is viewed as helpful," she says. "In-space printing of satellites and large structures, however, is a fundamentally new mission architecture; we need to understand how this approach is better, faster, or cheaper than what we're doing today." Recycle, Reuse, Reinvent Regardless of advances made in in-space manufacturing, there will likely remain categories of parts and equipment — processors, traveling wave tubes, high performance microelectronic chips — that are simply too hard to make in space. Those parts, payloads or processing modules will still have to be delivered to space by rockets, then plugged into their respective systems. According to Eller, one way to reduce launch costs over time and facilitate in-space production of more complex items would be to scavenge all of the required raw materials from the space environment itself. "There is a wealth of orbiting space junk – dead satellites — that we believe could be recycled and used as raw material for in-space manufacturing," he says. A recycling system he envisions would use robotic arms to capture and place dead satellites in a large crucible. The crucible, which would be made of a material with an extremely high melting temperature, would be heated by a large solar concentrator. "Satellites contain a variety of rare materials, each with its own unique melting temperature," explains Eller. "We could selectively melt and capture all of the material of type A, heat it more to melt and capture material of type B and so on." This recycling process would create ingots of raw material with varying degrees of purity, each stored in its own compartment. In theory, this material could be processed and made available for future operations. The Price of Progress Even if we could get to a point where a complete satellite system could be produced in space, said Eller, there could be subtle and unintended consequences. "When we produce satellites on Earth, we obtain parts from many suppliers, each of whom has perfected the recipe for making those part(s) with high reliability," he says. "When we manufacture in space, we might lose that collective wealth of engineering and manufacturing know-how. So we either have to replicate the original level of expertise — a big challenge — or we have to do without it." Either way, he believes, the future of in-space manufacturing and assembly systems is full of promise, excitement and yet-to-be-invented technologies. "It's hard to know which aspects of how we use space are going to change," says Eller. "There is a growing consensus that manufacturing in space is something that will make things completely different." Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are, too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.

In-Space Manufacturing and Assembly: A Different Kind of Future

 Stretchable electronics have the electrical properties of their rigid predecessors but with the added ability to stretch, compress and twist. After more than a decade of academic research at institutions around the world, these elastic electronics are starting to be commercialized. They can be used for robots, consumer gadgets, medical devices, car parts, and even fashion, sports and beauty. Just like any emerging technology, some of the most exciting applications haven't been invented yet.How Stretchable Electronics Work There are several different approaches to the technology. The first commercialized elastic electronics are made by altering the structure of silicon, the semiconductor that is used in most electronic devices. A researcher named John Rogers first demonstrated stretchy silicon at the University of Illinois by cutting a thin layer of the material into patterns to allow it to expand and contract. Another technique uses liquid metals that can be used as ink to print integrated circuits onto flexible materials. Additionally, some researchers have focused on chemistry, by changing the molecular structure of organic materials to make them elastic. Stretchable components can be combined with a microchip and a near-field communication antenna to wirelessly communicate with a nearby device, such as a smartphone.Many Industries Will Benefit Although this technology is still relatively new, it could potentially be introduced into a variety of industries. Medical professionals are especially interested in using it to make smart skin patches for research and patient monitoring. Artificial skin could be used to help burn victims recover. It could also be used to make tiny, implantable medical devices. Even in its most basic form, an electronic skin patch could be very helpful. A "smart" Band-Aid or temporary tattoo could be embedded with a suite of sensors to monitor a patient's physiological markers such as pH levels, heart rate and electrical activity in the brain. Stretchable electronics will likely blur the lines between market segments that have traditionally been considered unrelated, such as consumer electronics and the fashion industry. Wearable devices such as smart watches could become elastic so they could be worn in places other than the wrist. Electronics could be woven right into fabric (just like elastic is today) to make smart garments for athletic teams, military uniforms or consumer novelty items. Smart patches are already being sold along with skincare treatments. Last year, La Roche-Posay sunscreen was sold with electronic stickers to monitor UV exposure, and soon moisturizers could come with similar stickers for measuring the skin's hydration levels. Medical and military groups could use stretchable electronic devices on prosthetic limbs. The smart skin could be stretched over prostheses to give amputees an artificial sense of touch. Athletes could wear smart patches for more precise physical conditioning, training and injury prevention. For example, the patches could monitor an athlete's hydration or measure muscle movement. Industrial settings will also benefit. Stretchable electronic components could be used to make soft robots, which are safer and more flexible than traditional metal robots. A thin layer of electronic material could be applied to existing industrial machines or auto parts to gather data about the work they are doing or to automate routine maintenance checks. Stretchable electronics are still in the early stages of commercialization, and research development isn't over yet. Engineers continue to improve the design while various industries are introduced to this innovative new technology.

Stretchable Electronics Could Extend Everywhere

 In the first six months after its attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Japanese navy swept the Pacific and Indian Oceans from Hawaii to Ceylon. It sank dozens of American, British and other Allied ships, often in one-sided victories. The goal was to clear such a vast region of sea around Japan that no counterattack would be practical, forcing the U.S. and other Allies to accept domination of the western Pacific and Southeast Asia. But a Japanese plan to round out its successes led instead to a decisive defeat of the Japanese navy at the Battle of Midway. Four of the six Japanese aircraft carriers that had struck at Pearl Harbor went to the bottom of the ocean, compared with just one American carrier lost. The initiative in the Pacific War shifted relentlessly toward U.S. and Allied forces. A Sea Battle — and an Information Battle Today, as recounted by Alan Taylor in Atlantic magazine, Midway is most remembered as the first great, full-scale clash between fleets of aircraft carriers. Indeed, it was only the second battle between carriers — the first was just a month earlier, the Battle of the Coral Sea, in which the U.S. Navy fought a Japanese task force to a draw. But even before the first airstrikes were launched, as Mark Munson reports at warontherocks.com, the Battle of Midway also demonstrated the decisive role of the information battlefield in modern warfare. The Japanese high command had devised a complex plan intended to catch the Americans by surprise and complete the elimination of U.S. naval strength that had begun at Pearl Harbor. Instead, thanks to American codebreakers and information analysts, it was the Japanese navy that was taken by surprise and defeated. Midway Island, some 1,500 miles west of Hawaii, was the last outpost west of Hawaii that was still in U.S. hands — and the first vital link in the chain of bases that the U.S. would need to take the war to Japan. A Japanese landing there would thus deliver a crippling blow — and perhaps pave the way for an invasion of Hawaii itself. As part of the operation, Japan's Admiral Yamamoto and his colleagues dispatched coordinated forces across thousands of miles of the Pacific, extending as far as Alaska. These forces were intended to leave American commanders uncertain of what objectives the Japanese would strike at. What Admiral Yamamoto did not know was that the Americans had partially broken the Japanese top secret naval code.Seeking the Identify of "AF" The information provided by the code breakers was tantalizing but not complete. Japanese communications revealed that an attack was intended on a place code-named "AF." American analysts suspected that AF was Midway, but how could they be sure? To find out, the U.S. base on Midway was secretly ordered to broadcast a message "in the clear" (uncoded) saying that it was running low on drinking water. The Japanese intercepted the message — as they were intended to — and were soon reporting that "AF" was short of water. For the Japanese, it was a fatal mistake. They had been tricked into revealing their objective, while they remained in the dark about American moves in response. Japanese planners also mistakenly thought that the carrier USS Yorktown had been sunk in the Battle of the Coral Sea. In fact, it only had been damaged, and was already back in service. Thus, the Japanese commanders thought that their four aircraft carriers were opposed by only two American carriers, when in fact they faced three, plus American aircraft on Midway itself. The coming battle would be more even than they realized — while their own complex plan left Japanese forces so spread out that they could not all support each other.Fire From the Sky, Fire on the Sea The battle itself began on June 3, 1942, when an American reconnaissance plane spotted part of the Japanese fleet. An airstrike by B-17s based on Midway had no effect. The next day, June 4, Japanese aircraft hit Midway, where they did considerable damage, but also got a tough reception from defending Grumman F4F Wildcats. But by that time, as Taylor notes, U.S. counterstrikes had already been launched toward the Japanese fleet. The American strikes, launched at extreme range, were not perfectly coordinated. The first waves of torpedo bombers, coming in low to launch their torpedoes, were pounded by antiaircraft fire and defending Japanese Zero fighters, and suffered heavy losses while scoring no hits. (Defective American torpedoes contributed to the failure.) But when American dive bombers appeared a few minutes later, approaching at high altitude, the Zero fighters were caught in the wrong position, too low to engage the new attackers. In addition, the Japanese carrier flight decks were crowded with planes being armed and fueled for follow-up strikes. Thus, the American dive bombers caught the Japanese carriers in the worst possible situation, their decks littered with bombs and gasoline hoses. Within minutes, three Japanese carriers were aflame from stem to stern. Later in the day a fourth suffered the same fate. All would sink or be scuttled by the next day. As all this was unfolding, Japanese airstrikes pounded the USS Yorktown, which would eventually sink on June 7. By then, the Japanese task force was retreating, crippled by the loss of its carriers. The Battle of Midway was over, but the Japanese navy would never fully recover from its losses — not only the four carriers, but trained pilots and crews as well. Modern aircraft carriers do not carry either torpedo bombers or dive bombers, which have been superseded by more capable strike aircraft. Thus, the most enduring lesson of Midway is that controlling the information battlefield is the key to victory. The modern expression for this information battlefield is C4ISR, standing for Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance. While computers did not yet exist in 1942, improvements in technology have only increased the power of information as the most decisive weapon of all.

The Battle of Midway: A Victory of Information

In the classic sci-fi film, "Predator," starring Arnold Schwarzenegger, a brutal alien hunts down a team of hired soldiers. Using advanced wearable technology, the creature can make himself invisible and also view the world in infrared. One-by-one, the alien kills the soldiers. But when Schwarzenegger's character, Dutch, discovers that by smearing himself in cool mud, he can squelch his body heat signature and become invisible to the creature, victory is his. Now, a more practical, 21st-century solution could render a solider just as invisible to alien predators and nighttime nemeses. Researchers from the University of California, San Diego and the National University of Singapore have, for the first time, created wearable technology that blends a person's own body heat signature into the surrounding environment's temperature, adapting to temperature changes and effectively hiding the person from thermal cameras and night vision goggles. The idea is to scale the device so that it can be worn like a jacket or full-body armor. In a research paper published in Advanced Functional Materials, the team writes that the device shows "promise for a broad range of potential applications, such as security, counterâ€surveillance, and adaptive heat shielding and thermal control." Coatings and Metamaterials Invisibility provides obvious advantages for soldiers, who often use the cover of darkness to perform covert operations. Thermal sensors, such as those in night vision goggles, thwart such attempts. The sensors reveal people (and animals) by distinguishing body heat from the temperature of the surrounding air. Technology that can match the radiating heat from a body to that of the background makes it invisible to thermal imagers. Proposed solutions have included surface coatings that, when applied to fabric for instance, change how much heat an article of clothing emits. But it's only effective within predetermined temperature ranges, and if the air gets colder or hotter than the setting, the tech "no longer works," the researchers write. Other solutions include so-called metamaterials engineered with specific microstructures so small and artfully crafted that they can alter the physics of light, sound and heat. But according to the UC San Diego and National University of Singapore research team, although "Metamaterialâ€based thermal camouflage holds great promise â€¦ their applications on human subjects are yet to be realized." Thermal Camouflage The new device is made from a combination of phase-change materials and metal alloys that change to a specific temperature in response to an electrical current. Both work together to change a person's body temperature to match the air temperature, without overheating or freezing them, reports PhysOrg. The metal alloys, which are sandwiched between stretchy elastomer sheets and are thin enough to stitch into clothing, quickly cool down or heat up in response to electricity. Tests showed that the device went from 50 degrees F to 100.5 degrees F in less than a minute in order to match the surrounding temperature and camouflage the wearer's body heat, according to a UC San Diego press release. At the same time, the inside of the device has phase change materials that keep the person comfortable. These waxlike materials can be tuned to melt at a specific temperature. In this case, they're tuned to melt at about 86 degrees F, which is the surface temperature of a person's skin. According to the press release, "If the temperature on the outside of the device is higher than that, the material will melt and stabilize, insulating the wearer; if colder, it will slowly solidify, still acting as an insulating layer." Next Steps For the next stage of research, the team will be investigating how to embed the wearable technology in a jacket. To do that, they'll have to lighten the technology's load and increase its energy efficiency. Currently, a garment using the proof-of-concept device would weigh about 4.5 pounds and only function for one hour. And to make such wearable technology completely foolproof, the research team will have to deal with the heat emitted when a person breathes. Team leader, Renkun Chen, associate professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering at UC San Diego, told Popular Science that they haven't solved that issue yet, but think a temperature-regulating face mask might work. 

New Wearable Technology Makes Thermal Camouflage Real

Yesterday, today and tomorrow, time counts.From the opening scene of Christopher Nolan's blockbuster movie Dunkirk the pressure of time is omnipresent. The sound of a ticking watch... tick-tock, tick-tock, grabs you in the chest, and it quickens your heart. Through the movie's remaining 107 minutes, the sound of the ticking watch subsides at points, but listen very closely and it's still there. Accompanying Hans Zimmer's score the persistent tick-tock of passing time is everywhere — it's the driving beat. It's the ever-present reminder that in battle, time is always in command.Zimmer accentuated the endless tick-tock with a Shepard Tone, a musical illusion representing a constantly ascending pitch. It reminds our subconscious selves that not only is time the driving force, but it's winnowing and getting more critical by the minute, the step, and the note.Time was running out at Dunkirk in 1940 when the German war machine threatened to tighten its grip around the desperate forces of the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Poland, Belgium and France.Time was just as pivotal two years later when the US Navy took on the Japanese Imperial Fleet at the Battle of Midway in the most significant battle of the War in the Pacific.Both Dunkirk and Midway are telling illustrations of the impact of time in conflict. At Dunkirk, the Germans chose to halt their advance on the port for three days to consolidate, to avoid an Allied breakout. That precious time made it possible for the remarkable exploits portrayed so evocatively in Dunkirk.At the Battle of Midway it was technology, rather than a hesitation, that gave the US Navy the elixir of time. For example, newly developed radar gave the US aircraft carriers the ability to see 100 miles in all weather conditions compared to the older binoculars used by the Japanese that had a range of 20 miles, and only in the best of weather. That early radar technology gave the USN precious extra time to prepare for incoming aircraft. This, and other technological advances, coupled with—first and foremost—the military exploits of USN servicemen, resulted in the loss of four Japanese aircraft carriers. The Imperial Navy would never recover from that blow.Leap forward 75 years and in 2017 digital transformation is making speed and time more important still.To win in the digital battle space, our forces must act at a faster tempo than their adversaries; as US military strategist John Boyd has suggested, they must get inside their adversaries' Observe-Orient-Decide-Act loop. Doing so will make the US and its allies unpredictable, it will generate confusion and disorder among adversaries. Northrop Grumman (NG) is committed to ensuring our forces maintain a decisive advantage by providing them with mission systems that harness the disruptive force of digital transformation. The engineers at NG are developing advanced software-defined, hardware enabled mission systems that operate at previously unimaginable speeds. These integrated, agile and interoperable C4ISR systems will provide critical decision-making intelligence and allow defense forces to sense, share, collaborate, and act with greater speed and confidence.The three heart-quickening stories told in Dunkirk operate on time scales of a week, a day and an hour. In the stories told of future conflict those will seem like luxuriously relaxed paces. Tomorrow's battles will be won and lost in seconds, microseconds and nanoseconds. Tomorrow's digital battles will be fought in the now cavernous space between tick and tock. Learn how you can be apart of them!

How 'Dunkirk' Started the Digital Transformation of Warfare

Global video game sales hit $180 billion last year — which means this market is now worth more than the North American sports industry ($75 billion) and global film industry ($100 billion) combined. Given ongoing pandemic uncertainty, the spending uptick makes sense; lacking other options, gaming technology offered a much-needed escape from reality. But is fun the only function of video games? Or do these digital systems offer a new way to approach real-world problems? Blurring the Lines Games have come a long way since the days of Pong, Frogger and Pitfall. Gone are 4- and 16-color displays, clunky pixels and obstinate controls. Now, games offer fully realized worlds that allow players to discover new experiences, meet new people and learn new skills. Graphics in high-end games have evolved to meet — or exceed — real-world fidelity, while emerging technologies such as augmented and virtual reality (AR and VR) offer even more immersive adventures. Gamer demographics have also evolved. Gamers run the gamut — young, old, male, female, life-long player to relative noob — there's no bar to entry. Much of this shift stems from the proliferation of different types of games. While first-person shooter (FPS) titles remain popular, there's also a massive market for real-time strategy games, role-playing games (RPGs) building and puzzle games, and massively-multiplayer online (MMO) games. The upshot? No matter your preference and play style, there's probably a game that fits your interests. But there's also a push to move games outside the realm of digital distractions and leverage them to tackle real-world problems. And so far, games are proving to be just as versatile outside their virtual environments. Solving for Strategy The classic 1980's movie War Games offered a terrifying glimpse of what might happen if hackers infiltrated a computer system designed to play "real" strategy games — spoiler alert: World War III was narrowly averted by hero Matthew Broderick. However, outside of Hollywood hype, there's a substantive case to be made for the use of video games in developing advanced military strategy. Consider Gamebreaker, an initiative of the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Gamebreaker program is designed to discover unfair ways for opponents to play in virtual war games simulator called "Command: Modern Operations." Northrop Grumman was awarded the Gamebreaker contract in May 2020. NG teams have now added more than 200 quadrillion options designed to find causal models within the game that can be exploited to gain operational advantages. This effectively mimics the dynamics of the conflict. Our adversaries are not looking to play by the rules — they're looking for any way to win. AI-driven models can help to uncover these unexpected advantages in secure computer models, in turn equipping commanders in the field with better intelligence before they engage enemies in battle. Correcting for Crashes Holographic heads-up displays (HUDs) are familiar sights in FPS and racing games. They offer critical information to players, such as how many rounds of ammunition they have left, their current level of health or how fast they're traveling. Well-designed HUDs in games are both customizable and unobtrusive, offering exactly the data you need — and nothing you don't. As SciTechDaily notes, these HUDs are now making their way into the real world thanks to light detection and ranging (LiDAR) technologies. Using LiDAR, a research team from the University of Cambridge has created a 3D HUD that delivers ultra high-definition holographic projections of road objects, effectively creating an augmented reality for drivers. What's more, the nature of LiDAR solutions makes it possible for them to "see" through objects, potentially offering a way for drivers to see vehicles or pedestrians coming at blind corners or spot road signs that are hidden by landmarks or buildings. Aiming for Accuracy FPS gamers love weaponry. Every FPS game has its own unique take on weapons such as guns, rocket launchers and grenades, with these weapons getting more powerful — and often more outlandish — the farther players progress. One of the most popular weapon types that often makes an appearance in near-future sci-fi games is the augmented grenade launcher. Along with the ability to shoot multiple grenade types depending on the scenario, gamers can also detonate these grenades on command to achieve a specific effect. New technology from the United States Army now offers this ability. Known as the Counter Defilade Target Engagement (CDTE)-XM25, this grenade launcher provides "a leap-ahead overmatch capability that will dramatically increase lethality and range with a family of 25mm programmable airburst munitions." In practice, this makes it possible for soldiers to deliver pinpoint grenade strikes in any combat environment. Mining for Math Games are also making inroads into education. Partly driven by pandemic necessity, games offer a way to engage students with concepts they may find challenging — such as math or science — in a way that's more familiar and fun. One of the most common approaches to this educational effort uses the massively popular game Minecraft, which sees players building virtually anything they want in a simple, block-based environment. Now, schools are using the game's "Education Mode" to help students construct complex shapes and solve complicated math problems. This mode features no fighting and no monsters. Instead, it conforms to natural laws and makes it possible for kids to explore the reaction between chemicals, better understand physical processes and engage with math in a way that simply isn't possible with pen and paper. Folding for the Future What if you could help save the world with a video game? That's the idea behind Foldit, a crowdsourcing game that challenges players to find new ways of folding proteins. Given the complexity of protein structures and the almost innumerable potential permutations, scientists have struggled to unlock many of their secrets. Foldit tasks players with finding the most efficient way of folding proteins, which could in turn help researchers predict their shape and provide clues about how they operate in the human body. Equipped with improved protein knowledge, experts may be better equipped to treat or prevent critical illnesses — all thanks to puzzle-solving gamers. Games are fun. But they're also functional; video gaming technology now has practical applications in everything from military strategy to heads-up displays and medical research. Bottom line? If you find something you like, start playing — you could help change the world. Are you interested in all things related to VR and AR? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Leveling Up: Can Gaming Technology Solve Real-World Problems?

One of the greatest challenges with designing solid rockets and control systems for missiles and space launch vehicles is protecting the hardware and payloads from the intense heat and high pressures generated by burning solid propellant. Flame temperatures can range from 2000 — 6000 degrees Fahrenheit and motor operating pressures can be thousands of pounds per square inch. In this extreme environment, the material used to insulate key components of rocket propulsion control systems begins to erode, decompose or change states, often within tens of seconds. Without insulation, these components can rapidly overheat and fail structurally, limiting a rocket's performance and operational range. Cool Under Pressure Enter Tim Dominick, senior principal engineer for propulsion, Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems. Since 2013, he's been leading the company's efforts to develop a new type of thermal insulator that remains stable and effective in high-temperature, high-pressure environments. Known as JT-700, the new insulator is a carbon-fiber-reinforced silicon carbide material. It is part of a class of materials known as ceramic matrix composites (CMC). JT-700 promises to improve the performance and extend the mission duration of solid propulsion control systems by an order of magnitude. "With JT-700, we can meet our customers' desire for increasingly compact, high-performance rockets that can fly for extended periods of time," said Dominick, who received AIAA's coveted 2019 Engineer of the Year award for his leadership of the JT-700 effort. High Strength, Low Conductivity JT-700, Dominick explains, is an aerospace technology called a structural insulator; it performs well as a thermal insulator (i.e., low in heat conductivity), yet is strong enough to serve as a load-bearing part of a structure. "Carbon-fiber reinforced silicon carbide CMCs have been around for about 25 years, but they've exhibited both high strength and high heat conductivity," said Dominick. "We've figured out a way to make JT-700 in a way that retains its strength while driving down its conductivity." Fabricating the Future Northrop Grumman is using JT-700 to fabricate complete nozzles for rocket propulsion control systems, he adds. Each nozzle is machined from a single block of JT-700 CMC material, which simplifies the nozzle assembly process. In the past, these parts were produced from refractory (high-temperature) metals to which phenolic insulation had been bonded. During rocket flight, explain NASA scientists, combustion of a rocket's solid propellant produces large amounts of gas at high temperature and high pressure. This exhaust gas flows through the rocket motor's nozzles, creating thrust. A propulsion control system "steers" the rocket by diverting exhaust gas selectively through each nozzle for discrete periods of time. To date, reports Dominick, Northrop Grumman has validated the JT-700 technology in both laboratory and prototype tests as a zero-erosion, low conductivity nozzle material suitable for use in solid propulsion control systems. High-Flying Possibilities Dominick believes that JT-700's insulating and structural properties also lend themselves potentially to another high-temperature, high-pressure defense application called hypersonic weapons. The Economist describes hypersonic weapons as "those that can travel more than five times the speed of sound, or about one mile (1.6km) per second." Hypersonic boost-glide weapons are so named because they are launched into the upper atmosphere atop ballistic missiles, then release hypersonic glide vehicles to carry a weapon to its target. According to Arun Bhattacharya, Ph.D., a senior engineer and subject matter expert in hypersonic structures and high temperature materials for Northrop Grumman, the company is exploring the possible use of JT-700 in this application. "Hypersonic air and space vehicles experience extremely high temperatures and high rates of heating during flight," he said. "This extreme environment demands that we select materials that can best meet the critical temperature, structural and weight requirements of these evolving air and space missions." Higher Temps, Higher Efficiency The commercial aircraft industry could also benefit potentially from JT-700, Dominick believes. "In a jet aircraft, a lot of incoming air is diverted and used for cooling metal parts in the engine," he explains. "Those metal parts can't survive at higher operating temperatures, which artificially limits the engines to a combustion temperature less than the service temperature of those parts." By replacing key metal turbine parts with a structural insulator such as JT-700, Dominick proposes, the need to cool those metal parts with "bleed air" could be eliminated. These "new" turbines would be able to operate at much higher temperatures, which would allow them to operate more efficiently and burn less fuel, an important economic consideration for any airline fleet. A Very Cool Future Although JT-700 has not entered production, it is an aerospace technology that promises to broaden, enhance and disrupt the material capabilities of the aerospace industry. Its arrival has not only inspired the development of other types of novel CMC materials, but also encouraged industry suppliers to enhance their CMC manufacturing capabilities to support the nation's most critical air and space missions.

Propulsion Control Systems Keep Their Cool With New Aerospace Technology

Advances in stealth technology uncloak career opportunities for engineers... and other creative problem solvers.   For the past 40 years, this technology and related tactics have been a critical part of modern air warfare. They have allowed low observability (LO) aircraft to penetrate enemy territory undetected and conduct their missions successfully.   According to a recently published report by the Air Force Association's Mitchell Institute, stealth technology will remain central to aircraft survivability in combat threat environments for the foreseeable future. Not surprisingly, U.S. adversaries remain as determined to detect our stealth platforms as we are to elude detection. To wit, enemy development of (1) more sensitive, longer range radars; (2) advanced digital signal processing (that speeds communications between ground radar systems and surface-to-air (SAM) sites or airborne interceptors; (3) more lethal, more mobile SAMS; (4) more advanced fighters carrying more advanced radar and longer range missiles; and (5) advances in command and control networking processes, are potentially putting U.S. stealth aircraft, their pilots and their missions at risk.   Against this backdrop, opportunities for engineers — and other types of creative problem solvers — to participate in this perennial game of stealth "cat and mouse" remain stronger than ever. Especially if they love solving hard problems — and not giving up.    Historically, stealth technology — the science of minimizing a stealth aircraft's radar cross section and its electromagnetic signature — has been the domain of engineers well trained in aircraft design and electromagnetic theory. But in today's stealth-focused labs, you'll find people trained in a broader, more diverse set of disciplines — from electrical, mechanical and aeronautical engineering to materials and data sciences.   "The most successful survivability engineers we've hired in recent years have had degrees in multiple disciplines," explains Elizabeth San Miguel, assistant manager of technology development for system survivability, Northrop Grumman. "Being able to understand multiple disciplines and how they affect each other in this context is an extremely valuable skill."   But a good education is just the beginning. "We're looking for people who are curious and innovative, people who like to solve problems, and who are smart enough — and observant enough — to recognize unexpected results," says John Ireland, director of survivability technology application, Northrop Grumman. Breakthroughs often occur, he adds, when engineers "stumble upon" an unanticipated result, but won't let go of it until they completely understand it.   Today's game of stealth is relentless and evolving, and playing out in multiple domains — air, ground, and space. Survivable platforms often operate as part of a broader network of air and space assets, so simply minimizing the radar cross section of a platform does not reflect the true complexity of the stealth equation.   "There are several levels to any stealth problem — the system level, the platform level, and the technology level," explains Doug Young, vice president and deputy program manager for strike, Northrop Grumman. "To the extent that engineers can navigate comfortably among those environments, they will be very successful."   But elegant engineering solutions alone won't guarantee mission success for LO platforms.   "As we design new systems, we have to put ourselves in the shoes of our adversary," says San Miguel. "As fast as we think of something new, we're also thinking of a countermeasure for it, trying to psyche out how someone with different objectives might try to attack us. That's the inherent cat and mouse game of warfare."   The most successful LO engineers in the future, claims Young, will be those who can suspend disbelief, start with a clean mental sheet, and remove from their thinking any perceptions of the past that might constrain their view of what's possible.   "Don't accept anything you already know as being required or the right answer," he advises. "If you want to create a new possibility, you have to have a future that is empty and available to accept that possibility."   Regardless of how stealth technologies and tactics evolve, one thing remains certain, declares Ireland. "Stealthy airplanes are sexy. Working in this field gives you a chance to be around things that few other people know about, and to affect the design of a truly unique platform. When that aircraft is produced, you'll be able to say, 'I did that, and I know how I made it better."

Wanna Make Stuff Disappear? Learn How Stealth Technology Is Changing the Game

In a world where U.S. peer competitors and rogue countries possess the capability to conduct missile-based nuclear strikes, a persistent space-based defense is the only way to ensure we're never surprised by or unprepared to defend ourselves against such attacks. "To protect the U.S., we want to get notification of any missile launches as early as possible from anywhere on the globe," explains Jenny Newbury, thread lead for Overhead Persistent Infrared (OPIR) performance on Northrop Grumman's Next-Generation Polar (NGP) satellite program. "But we also don't want to wake up the president with a false alarm." NGP satellites comprise the polar-orbiting component of the U.S. Space Force's Next-Generation OPIR program, the nation's newest missile warning system. Northrop Grumman serves as the Space Force's prime contractor for NGP. The company is also developing sensor payloads for Next-Gen OPIR satellites operating in geosynchronous orbits (GEO). Ensuring Persistence Not surprisingly, infrared technology is central to the OPIR mission. "A boosting missile is very hot, so we always want to look for that heat in the infrared portion of the spectrum," advises Newbury. "The advantage of monitoring the Earth from space, of course, is that you can watch the entire disk of the Earth for missile launches in a steady, persistent way." Satellite infrared technology can also be used to detect and provide early warning to populations on Earth about forest fires, she adds. Northrop Grumman has been developing early warning satellites since the 1960s when it produced 12 Vela satellites designed to detect nuclear tests in space and the atmosphere. The company also designed and produced the nation's GEO constellation of Defense Support Program early warning satellites, which became the spaceborne segment of the North American Aerospace Defense Command's Tactical Warning and Assessment System in 1970. Optimizing the Constellation Since missile attacks can originate anywhere on the globe, developing and maintaining an effective space-based defense system requires deploying missile warning satellites in a variety of orbits. Current missile warning systems typically use four to six GEO satellites and two satellites in highly elliptical (polar) orbits (HEO), advises Newbury. While GEO satellites have a fairly direct view of the "middle" two-thirds of the Earth disk, their views of the poles are limited by their oblique viewing angle of those regions. "Satellites in HEO can look straight down at the poles," says Newbury. "That's significant because the quickest route to the U.S. for a ballistic missile traveling from China, Russia or North Korea would go right over the North Pole." The other advantage of HEOs, she adds, is that you can always downlink sensor data directly to the U.S., which is good from a security perspective. Choosing the Best Infrared Technology Space-based defense systems typically use several IR frequency bands. "When we're trying to detect missile launches as early as possible, we use shortwave infrared technology, which allows us to see through the atmosphere, all the way to the ground," explains Newbury. "Unfortunately, with those IR frequencies, we also get a lot of clutter, i.e., things that look like detections but aren't." That's where mid-IR and long-wave IR signals come in handy, she adds. These signals are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so once the missile rises above the clouds, satellite sensors can see it and track it easily against a plain background. "If you want to get a closer look at that missile or warhead, you'll also need two or three satellites in low Earth orbits (LEO) to get an accurate track. These satellites tend to have sensors operating in a variety of bands." Engineering the Mission Designing and optimizing a space-based defense mission — deciding everything from how many satellites to put in orbit and what types of sensors should be used, to how best to process and relay data to ground operators — is the domain of seasoned mission engineers like Steven Warwick, mission performance modeling and simulation lead for Northrop Grumman's OPIR and Geospatial Systems business unit. "We start with how is this data going to be used, who's going to be using it and what are they trying to achieve with it?" he explains. "Once we know why we need the data, we can optimize our approach for getting it." Warwick and his team use orbital visualization tools such as the system tool kit (STK) and an internal Northrop Grumman-developed tool called Thorn to define the optimum geometry of satellites for achieving the desired space-based defense mission. "Mission engineers model different types of targets traveling on different trajectories with unique thermal signatures to see how they look against the Earth under different atmospheric conditions," Warwick clarifies. "We also rely on skilled Northrop Grumman mission analysts to identify how best to correlate an observed threat profile with a particular type of target." Ensuring Attribution Strategically, Warwick suggests, the name of the game in missile defense is attribution. "We want to be very sure of who launches an attack against us but also to let our enemies know that we have a system that will absolutely tell us who launched an attack against us," he says. Warwick hopes that such a scenario never plays out, of course, but the rules of an effective space-based defense remain ironclad. "If we detect a launch, we must produce a high-accuracy track of that missile, and then retain 'custody' of that track to ensure that we can predict where it's going to land," he says.  Maintaining Track Achieving and maintaining that track, however, requires significant data processing. "The large-format focal planes of early warning satellites gather hundreds of millions of pixels of threat data per second, which can stress the capabilities of a typical comm downlink," Warwick suggests. "In that case, a satellite will do some processing on board to try to identify the pixels that matter most and send those pixels to the ground for further processing." The key challenge, he stresses, is to keep the true detections and throw away the false ones. Maintaining track of an incoming target is also being challenged by evolving weapon technology, Warwick says. "Traditional ballistic missile warheads, once separated from their booster, follow a gravity-driven trajectory, which makes it relatively easy to determine their point of impact," he explains. "By contrast, hypersonic weapons, once released, begin maneuvering at the very top of the atmosphere, which makes them much more difficult to track." Rethinking the Mission Newbury believes that hypersonic weapons may also be changing the way her customers think about how best to track and engage these more advanced targets. "I think there's more utility for LEO and medium Earth orbit (MEO) systems where you want to get closer to your target," she says. "I also expect to see increased use of sensors operating in different parts of the spectrum to track newer targets that are very dim and may be maneuvering." Northrop Grumman is well positioned to address this mission, Newbury believes, because of its development of two Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS) demonstrator satellites for the U.S. Missile Defense Agency in the early 2000s. Now retired, the STSS satellites proved the ability to use infrared technology to detect missile launches, track missiles from boost phase through midcourse flight, and communicate with missile defense command and control forces on the ground. Meeting New Challenges However it shakes out, claims Newbury, the U.S. is rising to the challenge of detecting increasingly sophisticated missile threats. "The big difference between current U.S. space-based missile warning systems and Next-Gen OPIR is that the payloads will be faster and better," she says. "We're basically using the same payloads for GEO and HEO, which will give us much larger views of the polar areas." The payloads for NGP, she continues, will not only perform traditional onboard processing of missile warning data but will also be able to download all of those pixels to the ground on every pass. This new capability will enable analysts on the ground to develop new missile warning and tracking algorithms from the raw data while also allowing payload engineers to evaluate the payload's health and performance. FORGEing the Future The nation's newest space-based defense systems, Newbury continues, will also be the first to become a part of the Space Force's new Future Operationally Resilient Ground Evolution (FORGE) Mission Data Processing Application Framework (MDPAF), as Raytheon Intelligence & Space explains. "Traditional missile warning satellites have been designed to communicate primarily with their own network of ground stations," she notes. "By contrast, the FORGE framework is designed to take in data from lots of different satellite systems and exploit it for the benefit of all users." Delivering Confidence Ultimately, counsels Warwick, space-based surveillance and tracking are all about protecting the U.S. from missile attacks. "The number-one job of our space-based defense system is to provide a track of high enough accuracy and low enough latency to give a ground-based interceptor the opportunity to do something about it," he says. "You better not say there's been a missile launch when there isn't one, and you better not miss one." Being on the forefront of change, especially regarding space, physics, and engineering has been part of the Northrop Grumman culture for generations. Click here to search jobs in these areas of scientific innovation.

Nation's Space-Based Defense Hinges on Infrared Technology

Emerging technology and the new normal of work are converging to define the future of work. The aerospace industry is in the middle of a digital transformation, adopting new processes and tools for every stage of engineering. From initial design to testing and production, every step of the job is now approached with a digital-first mindset. All this innovation is creating a new work environment. Northrop Grumman is developing technologies that could transform employee processes and the way businesses operate. So, what does this mean for employees and business outcomes? A New Way of Working "We have a whole host of new technologies continuing to burgeon between AI, big data and analytics, hypersonics and cyber technology," says Peter Brooks, vice president of talent acquisition for Northrop Grumman. "The skills that were mainstream 20 years ago are not going to sustain into the future." All the exciting technological advancements that are propelling the next industrial revolution — often called Industry 4.0 or smart manufacturing — are changing the workplace. Here are some ways technology is changing the future of work in aerospace manufacturing:   Designs were previously done with pencil and paper. Then, when computers were introduced to the industry, a digital copy of the design was created online. Now, engineers from different disciplines and in different locations work together in an interactive and comprehensive 3D computer model.  With a DevSecOps approach, development, security and operations work on parallel paths throughout the entire product life cycle so that any potential issues are resolved early in the design process.  Computer simulation ensures that every product is tested extensively before it even goes into production.  Advanced tools such as virtual reality and augmented reality provide an extra layer of testing, even in places humans previously struggled to reach, such as the top of an aircraft, inside a space station or inside an avionics system where tiny screws are used.  Now, robots can help to build products and even conduct inspections by automatically detecting anomalies in the finished goods.  The types of products and services in the industry are rapidly expanding to include cutting-edge technology, such as upgrading existing equipment with new sensors and connectivity (the Internet of Things, IoT), incorporating artificial intelligence software into defense systems and using data analytics to gain new insights such as predictive maintenance.  Constant Learning For many years, manufacturing careers involved a prescribed set of skills. For example, previous generations learned COBOL, a programming language that prevailed for 40 years. Now, technology is changing at such a rapid pace that engineers need to constantly keep up with the latest tools and programming languages. This means learning is no longer a linear path; it's now a continuous endeavor. "We need to make sure that our team and potential candidates out in the market are constantly honing and rediscovering the latest and greatest technology," says Brooks. In some instances, this means a formal education path. At the same time, many employees are learning on the job, participating in technical training programs at work and using Northrop Grumman's employee portal to take courses and tutorials online. "Sometimes, you need to be so prescribed in terms of transitioning your skill set that you go to a graduate program for a couple of semesters or you take a certification class," Brooks explains. "Other times, you just need to do some quick learning in the moment, and it could be a 30-minute tutorial or a two-hour webinar. The key is to make sure that we have all of those arrows in the quiver for our employees." New Opportunities for Success Northrop Grumman is a collaborative workplace with critical in-person face time with colleagues, especially in the manufacturing environment. Work for customers like the Department of Defense and NASA typically requires heightened levels of security that often require working on-site in a closed network that external people cannot access. Still, recent events have pushed leaders across the company take a hard look at every aspect of work — including virtual and remote work for certain roles. "Our employee safety needs to be paramount, and we need to leverage technology in ways that enable us to work virtually or in hybrid ways when possible," Brooks says. An Office That's Out of This World Northrop Grumman credits this ability to adapt with helping the company push forward with ground-breaking technology even with challenges in the world. Including the challenge of what it's like to work on other planets. The company continued to develop and test the new Habitat and Logistics Outpost, HALO, which will house astronauts during lunar missions, throughout 2020 and 2021. "One of the reasons the HALO remains on schedule is because we use digital models and virtual reality to transport engineers to the moon and the harsh environment of space," says Brooks. "And of course that's predicated on the talent and the commitment of our team, but that digital transformation enables some pretty radical advancement in terms of program support." Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery in science, technology, and engineering.

Future of Work: How Emerging Technology Is Transforming the Workplace With Innovation and Efficiency

Fritz von Opel, nicknamed Rocket Fritz, is known for his experiments and adventures with rocket planes, rocket-powered automobiles and motorcycles. This year, we celebrate the 85th anniversary of Fritz von Opel's revolutionary rocket-propelled drive, which sparked the age of rockets. The story begins in 1927, when von Opel was contacted by fellow pilot and rocket plane enthusiast, Max Valier. Valier was looking for someone to support his rocket propulsion experiments, according to Jalopnik. Fritz's grandfather founded the Opel automobile company, so it might be said that a taste for speed was in his blood. Von Opel — who was always looking for new ways to go fast and gain publicity for the Opel company — agreed to collaborate with Valier. "On Instinct Alone" On April 11, 1928 — a largely forgotten benchmark date in the history of rockets — Fritz von Opel became the first known human to ride a rocket-powered car. The RAK-1 reached a top speed of about 60 miles per hour (100 kph), according to Opel. An improved model, the RAK-2, reached a top speed of 145 mph (238 kph). As Opel proudly recounts, Rocket Fritz described his handling of the vehicle as "acting on instinct alone, with uncontrollable forces raging behind me." The RAK-3 set an unmanned speed record on railroad tracks, but the RAK-4 exploded, and that was the end of Opel's experiments with rocket-powered cars. A proposed rocket motorcycle was abandoned under pressure from the authorities. Taking to the Air Meanwhile, as Jalopnik notes, Fritz von Opel and Max Valier had raised their rocket propulsion goals to the skies. Valier had already co-founded the legendary Verein fé¼r Raumschiffahrt (Society for Space Travel), a group of space enthusiasts and experimenters that included a young Wehrner von Braun. According to Popular Science, Valier foresaw the potential of rocket planes for spaceflight as early as 1924, long before he met Fritz von Opel. Valier wanted to outfit a regular plane with a rocket engine, with the hopes that it would significantly reduce intercontinental travel time. Alas, few details of von Opel's and Valier's rocket plane experiments were recorded. Strange Vehicles reported that von Opel bought a sailplane called the Ente and fitted it with rocket motors, but the aircraft exploded on its second test flight, before he had a chance to fly it. Fritz von Opel ended his rocket propulsion experiments there, and Max Valier was killed in a 1930 rocket explosion. Return of the Rocket Plane The greatest age of the rocket plane may still be ahead, as researchers continue to explore the possibility of spaceplanes that can use jet power to take off from a runway and climb through the atmosphere, then use rocket power to reach orbital speed. The challenges and potential of this technology are both enormous. The U.S. Air Force's X-planes, most famously the X-15, pioneered supersonic and hypersonic flight. Hypersonic transport — much more advanced than von Opel and Valier's inventions — could make space travel affordable and accessible for the everyday person.  Yet, when considering the history of rockets, we should not forget those days, not yet a century ago, when rocket-powered cars and motorcycles were the technology of the future.

Fritz von Opel and the Daredevil Birth of the Rocket Plane

Infrared technology, based on a wavelength of light invisible to human eyes, is being harnessed for dozens of astonishing uses. Just below the color red on the electromagnetic spectrum, this type of radiant energy was discovered by Sir William Herschel, an amateur astronomer famous for finding Uranus in 1781. During World War II, German scientists developed night-vision technology based on infrared light. Today, the military has adopted a wide range of uses for this scientific breakthrough, including infrared scanners, guidance heads for missiles, night vision goggles and missile defense systems, such as Northrop Grumman's LAIRCM system, for aircraft. But infrared applications go beyond the battlefield to help improve life in unexpected ways. Here are just three. Forecast Extreme Weather  Weather on Earth is intense and costly. A new report published in December 2018 by Christian Aid, a U.K.-based charity, found that the three most expensive weather disasters worldwide that year occurred in the United States. They were Hurricane Florence, which killed 53 people and caused $17 billion in damages; Hurricane Michael, which killed 43 people and cost $15 billion; and the Camp Fire in California, the state's deadliest and most destructive in almost a century. It killed at least 85 people, wiped out the town of Paradise and destroyed about 14,000 homes, causing an estimated $7.5 to $10 billion worth of damage. Predicting extreme weather depends heavily on satellites that orbit the Earth and track conditions in the oceans and atmosphere. Two new satellites — GOES-16 and GOES-17, launched in 2016 and 2018, respectively — are now online and working together to provide high-resolution visible and infrared imagery as well as lightning observations for improved forecasting. Part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Joint Polar Satellite System, the sister spacecraft will draw upon a suite of sensors, some of which rely upon infrared technology to measure aerosols in the atmosphere, along with clouds, thunderstorms, hurricanes, rainfall, moisture, atmospheric motion and volcanic ash. They'll also identify fire and hot spots, crucial to forecasters in the western United States. Data from the satellites will reveal atmospheric processes associated with thunderstorms and hurricanes, reports NOAA. It will also indicate cold clouds, which are associated with storms that produce tornadoes, hail and strong wind. Catch Wildlife Poachers Wildlife poaching has reached epic proportions. In 2018, 769 rhinos were killed illegally in South Africa for their horns, according to Save the Rhino. And about 100 elephants are killed every day in Africa for their ivory tusks, meat and body parts, reports World Elephant Day. Until recently, wildlife rangers equipped with military packs, weaponry and vehicles were no match for poachers, who typically prowl sanctuaries and savannahs at night by foot to make stealthy getaways. But recently, the World Wildlife Federation started enlisting infrared and other technology to give gamekeepers an advantage. Handheld infrared cameras as well as those mounted on vehicles, stationary posts and even on drones help security personnel spot unwelcome visitors — up to a mile away. Image analysis software, such as that developed by the University of Southern California, distinguishes human from animal, and specialized software that uses a wireless network can alert rangers to potential intruders, reports NPR. The ability to see threats before they happen could save the lives of thousands of animals already headed for extinction. Uncover Historical Clues in Paintings For decades, art historians and conservators have been using infrared cameras to analyze paintings or validate their authenticity. The technique, called infrared reflectography (IR), works because many common pigments in paint are partially transparent to infrared light, revealing clues to what might be underneath. For instance, the camera may pick up so-called "underdrawings," sketches the artist made before applying paint. Differences between the drawings and the final painting provide insight into the artist's decision-making and ultimately, their creative process. "When you see things with infrared light, you start to look at the painting in a different way," Aaron Steele, an imaging specialist and photographer with the Detroit Institute of Arts, says in a video for PBS. The same technique can be used to detect art forgeries, reports the Art Law Journal. One such forgery was that of the painting "Virgin and the Child with an Angel" by Francesco Francia (1450—1517). It was donated to the National Gallery in 1924 by a wealthy businessman who had purchased it from an art dealer. In 1954, another version of the painting came up for auction in London. In 2009, investigators examined both pieces of art using IR. Analysis of the underdrawings found that the painting that had surfaced in 1924 had been sketched using graphite, a material that wasn't around when Francia was alive. It was the fake. Who would have known hundreds of years ago that an invisible band of light would lead to technologies that help humans see the unseen? Most people associated infrared technology with military gear that lets soldiers see at night and pilots defend against guided missiles. But infrared applications extend into unexpected fields that benefit millions of people — and animals — worldwide.

Infrared Technology Reveals the Unseen

The concept of radar, while revolutionary at the time of its creation, seems deceptively simple today. Preteens playing military-themed video games see and track their enemies on the radar display in the lower right corner of their screen. Speeding motorists pulled over by police officers hear their exact radar-verified velocity when told why they were stopped. Television meteorologists casually instruct viewers to look at the Doppler radar as an impending storm approaches.  The term "radar" itself is so common and widely understood in today's lexicon, it's easy to forget its origins. RADAR was an acronym first used by the U.S. Navy in 1940 to stand for radio detection and ranging that found its way into the public conscience.  But what if a radar does more than the detection and ranging the technology's primary forefather, Scottish physicist Sir Robert Watson-Watt, envisioned? Is it still a radar? As military technology becomes more sophisticated and threats continue to evolve, the need for multifunctional and adaptable equipment on the battlefield continues to grow. As a result, the radars of today and the future are doing far more than their predecessor's mission of detection and tracking. "In today's warfare environment, as we try to pack more capability in to less space and weight, single-function systems are being replaced by multifunction systems," said Curtis Pearson, director, strategic captures, Northrop Grumman. "This allows the space that used to be occupied by only a radar to contain a radar, a communications node or an electronic attack system based on the need of the warfighter." Modern actively-scanned electronic array (AESA) radars, including the APG-81 for the F-35 and APG-83 for the F-16 Viper, incorporate counter-jamming measures and can even act as electronic attack assets, affecting other radars, sensors, and communications nodes in the battlespace. "For the warfighter, having the ability to quickly toggle between multiple functions on a single sensor provides a more efficient and effective means to meet and defeat unexpected threats or circumstances while completing the mission," said Dan Dixon, Director, F-35 development planning, Northrop Grumman. "Another advantage is the ability to reduce the overall SWAP [Space, Weight and Power] requirements as compared to traditional federated mission system solutions. If one system can perform a variety of tasks at near simultaneous speeds, there's potential to optimize next-generation system performance."  An example of radar multifunction is the company's Vanguard radar. Each Vanguard array contains a scalable number of small radar panels that link together. During missions, the panels can be programmed to either operate together as one large antenna unit or act separately as individual radars, jammers, or communications nodes. For example, in a six-panel array, four panels could be devoted to creating a synthetic aperture resolution map of an area below while two panels could be communicating out the data being collected.  "Vanguard redefines the way we produce radars and the capabilities that are possible within one flexible, scalable design," said Paul Kalafos, Vice President of Surveillance and Electromagnetic Maneuver Warfare, Northrop Grumman. "Vanguard's modular radar panels are the building blocks for a multitude of future radar aperture applications." In other words, Vanguard is an indication that a new era of radar is upon us. If you can still call it that. 

When is a Radar Not a Radar Anymore?

 The military is no stranger to virtual reality (VR) technology. As noted by Wareable, the U.S. Army uses a combination of custom-made controllers and VR headsets to effectively mimic field-of-battle scenarios and have new soldiers perform various tasks under pressure, while the BBC reports that researchers in the United Kingdom are developing bomb-disposal training which is 90 percent cheaper and much safer than current training systems. But with VR systems coming down in price as they ramp up in quality, action-based virtual reality gaming is quickly becoming the norm — are kids just having fun, or can advanced game tech help potential recruits master the military mindset?Live Action or Living Room According to GeekWire, the HoloLens technology from Microsoft, which can display real-time battle data or help conduct training scenarios, has now "joined the military" to help Marines conduct training scenarios and researchers study the potential effects of IEDs. But as noted by Engadget, game-based VR such as the "Jackal Assault" space combat simulator — part of the incredibly popular "Call of Duty" franchise — is now available to all PS4 owners who also have a PlayStation VR headset. The verdict? It's immersive, fun and adrenaline-filled, marking common ground between commercially available game tech and some cutting-edge devices used by the military. VR is also making its way into the world of quick decision-making with the advent of realistic driving games. As noted by Michael Addabbo, Systems Engineer in Modeling and Simulation for Northrop Grumman: "Sometimes I'll go home and race in virtual online racing using a VR. The cars and race tracks are so accurate, professionals use them to practice, and I've found myself racing online with professional racing drivers practicing using VR." The ability to mimic real-world scenarios such as combat situations or high-speed racing puts VR on the path to significantly influence military technology — not only are gamers interested in what military operations look like from the inside, virtual reality games establish the foundation for effective skill-building.All Fun and Games? Of course it's easy to dismiss shoot-em-up games, even in virtual reality, as a poor imitation of actual military encounters. It makes sense; the violence depicted can be over-the-top or entirely too real without context, giving rise to worries that gamers who play combat-based simulators could develop issues such as increased aggression or decreased empathy. Recent research, however, paints a different picture. As noted by the Entertainment Software Association (ESA), new studies show that action games may boost cognitive abilities thanks to "improvement in perceptual templates, which help subjects understand their surroundings." In addition, researchers found that these benefits lasted for months after the initial experiment concluded, suggesting a net positive effect for gameplay. Psychology Today, meanwhile, reports that combat games which focus on working within teams suggests "a strong potential value of cooperative play in developing social behavior and curbing antisocial thoughts and behavior." In other words, being part of a tight-knit unit improves emotional resilience. And VR itself has come a long way from low-res imitations of the real world; now, accurate modeling and object physics help users apply skills learned in virtual simulations to the real world. Consider aviation — according to Addabbo, "with today's level of realism in VR, we're able to completely replicate the modern cockpit virtually. Every switch and knob works just like the real aircraft. Currently we're prototyping concepts in VR before we commit to fabricating real parts. We can explore things in VR and let real pilots try them out before we fabricate real parts saving time and money."Super Soldiers Consider: What's the ideal personality profile for military personnel? Individuals with strong communication skills, solid team-building experience, exceptional chaos and stress management and the ability to react quickly if situations change or hostile threats emerge. Current games provide the foundation for improved cognitive ability, communication and team work, while virtual reality gaming may help take the experience to the next level by introducing a kind of controlled chaos — gamers are immersed through visual, auditory and even tactile stimuli and must then respond to chaotic situations such as a pitched battle, nighttime air assault or virtual bomb defusal. Real-world results back up the potential benefits; as noted by Azad Kupelian, Lead Systems and Software Engineer for Northrop Grumman: "We're not just seeing cognitive gains through VR, but we're modeling the efficiencies of how people interact with machines and each other. Through the use of VR for factory design, we're able to more accurately predict how teams will work together on a floor before we even break ground, and also foresee how a part's design affects our ability to manufacture it much earlier in the development process, when changes cost less." Combined with the right outreach programs from military agencies, it may be possible to leverage VR gaming as an effective way to reach better-than-average recruits who can more easily transition into tech-savvy military roles. VR is now a reality for combat organizations worldwide. But augmented gaming may offer a new way to leverage this technology and seek out potential members with an above-average military mindset.

Virtual Reality Gaming: Mastering the Military Mindset?

U.S. and allied defense industry leaders recognize that a digital transformation of the military is critical to maintaining a decisive advantage over adversaries who are trying to win the information race. The victors of future wars will gather and secure trusted information while denying it to the enemy. military exercises Adversaries know this and many are spending more on systems that deny information than on building bigger arsenals. That's why the U.S. and its allies must invest in game-changing multifunction mission systems that can sense, interpret and understand information in the battle space faster than an adversary. To help develop and learn how to fight these systems across domains, military exercises are playing a more important role than ever. In fact, these exercises provide an important backdrop for trials and experimentation and help establish a clear understanding of requirements. Earlier this year, the U.S. military conducted Northern Edge 2017 (NE17), a biennial, U.S. Pacific Command-sponsored air combat exercise at the Joint Pacific Alaska Range Complex. The exercise, led by Alaska Command, involved nearly 6,000 airmen, Marines, sailors and soldiers, more than 200 aircraft, and Navy and commercial vessels. During the exercise, defense company Northrop Grumman rolled out numerous cutting-edge digital technologies for the military brass, including next-generation air dominance, fifth- to fourth-generation communications, advanced self-protection electronic warfare (EW) and cognitive (artificial intelligence) applications to EW. "Participation in NE17 enabled us to demonstrate emerging technologies and operating concepts in one of the most complex and operationally relevant environments currently available, allowing us to highlight 'art of the possible' capabilities to our warfighting customers," said Jack Forsythe, director of airborne C4ISR mission engagement at Northrop Grumman. NE17 enabled the defense company to accomplish several first-ever successes in key airborne capabilities. Northrop Grumman paired fire control radars with advanced imaging to develop unique kill-chain capabilities. Second, Northrop Grumman demonstrated the ability of fifth-gen aircraft to communicate with fourth-gen aircraft by simultaneously receiving F-22 and F-35 data-link messages and then re-transmitting them to fourth-gen fighters through Link-16. Finally, the company's advanced EW team confirmed for the first time that their system blinded "enemy" threat radars using a new multi-function resource manager.  "Northern Edge is an incredible opportunity for the military and its defense partners," said Steve Bryant, vice president of advanced strike and mission enablers, Northrop Grumman. "It provides us insight into our systems from more of the warfighter's perspective and enables us to develop capabilities more efficiently and cost-effectively for them." "Northern Edge allows us to operate our sensors in a representative combat environment that our warfighters could face in a high-end scenario," said Tom Jones, vice president and general manager, airborne C4ISR, Northrop Grumman. "Participants learned what it's like to succeed in complex air warfare scenarios." NE17, and other military exercises like it, enable the participants to collect and examine data in innovative ways so allied partners can gain the decisive advantage they need to win the information race. 

Military Exercises Provide Proving Ground for Winning the Information Race

Over the last 20 years, anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) zones have entered the global military strategy conversation in a big way. Although A2/AD methods have been around since antiquity, recent technology advances have catapulted them to center stage. Non-Western players like Russia and China are growing their resources to use A2/AD to their advantage, according to Defense One. The Chinese investment in ballistic missiles, submarines and air defense implies that they are focusing on preventing access to their shores. At the same time, Russia is growing their capabilities to advance their agenda and test the waters in Eastern Europe. The abundance of A2/AD technology strengthens their ability to control who can enter certain areas via normal transportation methods. Using their advanced air systems, Russia can hold a region hostage by controlling or monitoring an area's railroads, airports and ports, according to Defense One. While these A2/AD arsenals are expanding, the U.S. military has a dire need to meet the challenges this new world poses. The Air Force Needs a Stealth Upgrade Currently, only 12 percent of the U.S. Air Force fleet can operate in anti-access/area denial zones, according to National Defense Magazine. This poses a problem for the U.S., not only in terms of national security and protecting our fleet, but also when it comes to protecting our place in the world as a leader in military technology. In early 2017, the Air Force tasked Northrop Grumman with building a new stealth fighter called the B-21 Raider. According to National Defense Magazine, the B-21 Raider "is expected to give the Pentagon a new long-range strike system that can carry nuclear or conventional weapons deep into well-defended enemy airspace and not get shot down ... Pentagon officials have said ... they expect the aircraft to achieve initial operating capability in the mid-2020s." Another potential win for the Air Force would be adapting current A2/AD capabilities to meet modern-day challenges. While the B-21 is in production, the B-2 fighters are testing modifications to their Defense Management System, which uses sensors, software and other radar-evading technology to preserve and expand their stealth abilities. The upgrades would integrate new technology and modernize the fleet, said Military.com. Meeting the Challenge Ideally, counterinsurgency methods like working with international partners to expand areas of operations and gathering intelligence to develop strategies would be at the forefront of any plan of action, according to The Royal Swedish Academy of Air Sciences. At the same time, mainstream counterinsurgency isn't enough; defense systems and stealth technology need upgrades to match the threatening parties' technology so that both tactics can work together in the fight against aggressors. Meeting the challenges A2/AD zones provide is a long game, one that needs smart technology to counteract the actions being taken by other players. While we grow our arsenals and expand our own capabilities, it's important to keep a watchful eye on the growth and advancements of other countries' assets and how they are using them to wield power.

Combating Area Denial Zones: US Air Force Stealth Fleet Needs Upgrade

In science fiction they go by a variety of names — shields, screens and deflectors being among the most popular — while the expression "force field" is more often used to describe the underlying principle, rather than specific defensive installations protecting spaceships, cities or entire planets in a science fiction story. As science writer Ella Alderson at Medium notes, force field defenses are so well established in science fiction that authors and scriptwriters hardly need to explain them. Readers and viewers are so up to speed on what they are that it's generally enough for the captain in the scene to order "Full deflectors!" or the chief engineer to warn, "The screens canna take much more!" This is good news for the creative community, because unlike many science fiction technologies, force field defenses have not yet made their debut in the real world, and the science around them is uncertain enough that an explanation would be tough to write, even in fiction. But are they possible off the screen and page? Fields All Around Us On the level of pure science, the answer is a resounding Yes. Not only are they possible, but they are actually all around us. If you go out and buy one of those little horseshoe magnets, you can have your own force field generator that will lift up a steel needle, overcoming another force field, Earth's gravity. Alas, what it won't do is stop a phaser beam, or even an old-fashioned bullet. The four basic forces that govern our universe — gravity, electromagnetism, and "strong" and "weak" nuclear forces — are all associated with fields that could certainly be called force fields, and some of these can provide protective shielding. Earth's magnetic field protects us all (including all present-day astronauts) from dangerous high-energy solar and cosmic particle radiation. Indeed, as USRA reports, NASA has seriously examined electromagnetic shielding for prolonged deep space missions as an alternative to massive physical shielding. Unfortunately, at our current state of technology, the required field generator would be even heavier than the shielding it would replace, so a lot of development work has to be done before force field protection against deep space radiation becomes viable. On the bright side, a lot of development work means exactly that: work to be done, which is quite different from impossible. How To Stop a Shockwave There are ongoing projects aimed at bringing us closer to classic science fiction-style force field defenses. One defense contractor has even patented a technology to protect vehicles from destructive shockwaves produced by explosions. A combination of electric arcs and lasers would be used to flash a wall of air into plasma — atoms so superheated that nuclei and electrons go their separate ways, making the plasma controllable by magnetic fields. Such plasma can deflect and therefore effectively absorb an oncoming shockwave, protecting the vehicle. One limitation is that while plasma readily deflects shockwaves, physical objects (such as shells or missiles) can pass through the plasma wall unimpeded, so other defenses would be required against these threats. As an additional caution, Mic.com notes that technology companies patent many ideas to protect their intellectual property, but not all of them end up being developed. Meanwhile, at TheDrive.com, Brett Tingley describes yet another ongoing project by the Air Force that uses ultra-high-power lasers to produce a force field capable of destroying or disabling incoming warheads or other weapons. The article notes that existing (experimental) laser defenses can actually knock out drones in tests by enveloping them in brief, localized force fields. According to Jeremy Murray-Krezan of the Air Force Research Laboratory, directed energy (DE) "is uniquely suited for an area of growing importance, nondestructive but damaging, disruptive, and denial of operations." Modern combat, it seems, is already a more complex environment than what we typically see in science fiction. Are Force Fields Possible? We are still a long way from the force field defenses that are popular in science fiction — protection that functions like the armor on a World War era battleship, stopping incoming attacks without needing to be aimed at specific threats. Our current understanding of physics suggests that such preclusive defense against modern weapons would be difficult to achieve without dramatic technological advances that we cannot yet confidently foresee. Still, active research is opening new possibilities for defenses and protection, suggesting that if force fields do become part of our defensive arsenal, they may take a different form from the shields and screens made popular in science fiction. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Force Fields — Searching for the Ultimate Defense

Key Takeaways Data creation from Internet of Things devices and sensors is accelerating globally. Increasing volume and variety of data needs faster transmission and analytical capabilities to extract value. Autonomous surveillance success from Triton MQ-4C relies on onboard AI with machine learning and connectivity for real-time data transmission back to base.It's often said that data is the new oil and that data drives business. Yet, just like real oil, a glut of data is almost useless.The U.S. Navy is one such organization trying to make sense, in real time, of massive amounts of information. It might have found an engine for its oil: an unmanned aerial vehicle with advanced processing powers to provide in-the-moment insight about the world's seas.The MQ-4C Triton aircraft, built by Northrop Grumman, began supporting U.S. Navy operations in early 2020, demonstrating unprecedented data collection capabilities as part of operational capability deployment.But it's not just the autonomous capabilities of Triton that excites the Navy — the aircraft's ability to process a massive amount of data means they can distinguish an authorized shipping vessel from an unauthorized, potentially threatening one.The Gigabyte ProblemData is everywhere. Just about every type of organization and business emphasizes digital-first operations and strategies as the linchpin to efficiency, productivity and ingenuity. However, increased data brings a new set of problems with volume, transfer speeds and diversity.Organizations are tripping over structured and unstructured data from a wide variety of sources. Advances in Internet of Things (IoT) and, more specifically, the Internet of Bodies mean more data is coming in from more connected devices, and the tricky part is analyzing it all.Even organizations that have data scientists can't keep up. Already, daily data production runs at an estimated 328.77 billion gigabytes per day, according to Business2Community. By 2025, Deloitte estimates global data creation at 175 zettabytes.Just like any other organization, the Navy faces this kind of data challenge deploying advanced technologies. At first, the Triton aircraft seems like just another source of data to manage: an unmanned vehicle that will give military commanders in the Pacific region and, eventually, around the globe all sorts of intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) information. Yet, Triton is unique for more than its ability to fly for more than a day without coming "back home" — it actually solves the gigabyte challenge with its onboard analytical processor that sifts through data in the air for easier interpretation.A Vast Theater"Triton is a real paradigm shift in unmanned systems," said Bill Beck, director of advanced development for Northrop Grumman's Triton program. To put this in context, Beck points out that Triton will be on a mission longer than the shifts of the Navy personnel managing those missions.In sports, it's difficult to compare athletes of different eras — gear, training methods and travel have all changed. In surveillance air flight, it's perfectly acceptable to contrast Triton to the P-3 Orion maritime aircraft of the 1960s. Triton builds on P-3's long legacy of mission-critical capability and extends that capability, integrating state-of-the-art electronics, software, sensors and data analysis.The original P-3 had analogue data that couldn't be transferred until the plane returned from a mission, Beck explained. Triton, however, is a high-powered network relay and data center with wide-band satellite connectivity. It receives messages and data input from a variety of sources — other planes, ships at sea and land sensors — and synthesizes it all to create a picture of the theater of operations it's canvassing. That picture is created and transmitted over satellite link in near-real time to ground operators.And quite a theater it will be: Check out this Northrop Grumman video that describes how Triton has an operating altitude greater than 50,000 feet and its 360-degree radar can scan 2.5 million square kilometers (0.96 million square miles). It can also survey four million nautical miles in one 24-hour mission.The MQ-4C's mission payload includes multiple sensors and radars specifically designed for the maritime environment. They account for the movement of water and wind to absorb key information.The advanced technologies wouldn't matter, though, if all the data Triton collects couldn't be disseminated during the mission. The data links that send information from the aircraft back to base are critical to Triton's successes. This real-time dissemination also includes operation during disasters, where autonomous unmanned aerial reconnaissance helps plan for aid and support."The data links on Triton are what make it all happen," Beck said of the design process. "A major design and operational consideration is how much processing needs to be done aboard the aircraft autonomously. Too little processing aboard means a huge amount of data needs to be offloaded, requiring large and available communications links. Too much processing aboard, with too little bandwidth available to offload data, and the operators question whether they're really getting all the information and data they need."Limitless PotentialBetween the advanced sensors and the data analytical capabilities on Triton, the Navy can accomplish a broad range of surveillance tasks.Trying to locate specific vessels in packed waterways is like looking for a needle in a haystack, Beck said. "These dense areas are a great place to hide and conduct mischief. With advances in AI and machine learning, Triton is able to sort through much of the noise and confusion in a way that allows clarity that the human eye simply cannot discern."The sky is the limit, as is the sea. "Time matters," Beck said of the aircraft's real-time data processing. "With Triton, you can figure out what you're looking at and what you're encountering. Time is of the essence, so sooner is better."Learn more about Triton and what it's capable of.

The Triton Aircraft Quickly Makes Sense of a Mysterious Sea

The most common materials in the world, including plastic, steel, glass or wood have distinct molecular and chemical properties that give them intrinsic qualities, such as strength, flexibility or transparency. But an entirely different class of materials, called metamaterials, are coming onto the scene.  Artificially engineered, these materials have unique geometries and physical structures that can manipulate any mechanical or electromagnetic wave that passes through them. Metamaterials can perform a host of futuristic tricks; they can absorb sound waves to produce silence, bend light to create invisibility cloak technology and dampen seismic waves to safeguard a building against an earthquake.  Metamaterial applications are numerous, but here are five of the coolest.  Sound Silencers  If you've ever traveled by train or plane, you know the thunderous noise large engines can make. Industrial noise occurs in factories, too — it even emits from the fan in your refrigerator. Some scientists, like Yun Jing and his colleagues at North Carolina State University, are building metamaterials to quiet these large machines.  In the journal of the Annual Review of Materials Research, Jing describes a material he designed that behaves like a kind of sound cage. Gaps in the cage are large enough to allow air to pass through but small enough that sound waves become trapped inside. Soundproof and ventilated, the cage could keep engine noise to a minimum.  Sonar Deflectors  In the deep ocean, submarines crews use sound waves, or sonar, to detect other seafaring vessels. But what if you have a stealth mission ahead of you and you don't want to be detected? Talk to engineer Amanda Hanford and her team at Pennsylvania State University. They designed a metamaterial device that renders objects invisible to sound. If the hull of a submarine were covered in this material, it would force the energy from oncoming sound waves to spread around the object, instead of bouncing off and returning a signal, reports the BBC.  Earthquake Dampeners  Earthquakes have injured or killed hundreds of thousands of people around the world since 2000, reports Our World in Data, and the annual damage earthquakes cause to infrastructure is in the billions of dollars. Researchers are looking at various applications of metamaterials to soften the blow of these violently shaking natural disasters.  One method involves building blocks called robotic meta-atoms, developed by a group of physicists from the University of Amsterdam, says PhysOrg. Each tiny device vibrates on a unique spring, causing the concentric rippling energy passing over it to shift and move in only one direction. That dissipates the wave in one direction and amplifies it in another. A device made from these meta-atoms could potentially redirect the energy of a seismic wave away from a building and in a safer direction.  Heat Shields  Dozens of space companies and agencies are currently drafting plans to send satellites and spaceships into orbit and beyond. Once outside Earth's protective atmosphere, spacecraft electronics become vulnerable to infrared heat and radiation from the sun. Current methods to protect them involve radiator panels made from quartz tiles. But these tiles are heavy, adding to the cost of launches.  Last year, researchers from the University of Southampton announced they had developed a thin, lightweight coating from metamaterials designed to radiate infrared heat away from spacecraft. Called a metamaterial optical solar reflector, or a meta-OSR, the material is made from metal oxide, a material commonly used for transparent electrical contacts. The team created a pattern in the surface of the material to bend each electromagnetic wave in the infrared spectrum away from it and also reflect sunlight.  Invisibility Cloaks  Scientists are closer than ever to creating an invisibility cloak that competes with Harry Potter's.  In research published last year in the journal Optica, researches led by engineer José© Azaé±a reported that they had developed invisibility cloak technology in the form of a spectral cloaking device that could make objects invisible in daylight. The device, called an optical filter, manipulates the various frequencies of visible light, such as the red, blue and green wavelengths of light seen in a rainbow.  The filter works by shifting one frequency of light to another as the light passes through the object, reports Tech Times. Once the light wave has passed, it returns to its original state. For instance, the filter would shift the red wavelength of light passing over a red apple to another frequency, rendering the apple invisible. Such a filter could be used to cloak military operations, but it could also be used in the telecommunications industries to improve radio signals.  Each year, scientists improve upon the technology of metamaterials, remarkably engineered coatings, devices and components. These structures, which are typically microscopic or smaller, allow scientists to control mechanical and electromagnetic waves in novel and surprising ways. From saving lives to shielding covert operations from enemy eyes, these materials push the limits of light and sound and will take humans into a future we haven't yet imagined.        

Engineered Metamaterials Could Lead to Invisibility Cloak Technology

Imagine: Right now the smart phone in your hand uses a tiny piece of a compound semiconductor, gallium arsenide (GaAs), as the transmitter power amplifier to connect you to the world. That chip is less than 1 millimeter x 1 millimeter — the area of a pinhead. To add even more context, there are 25.4 millimeters in an inch. The chip's small size is enabled by GaAs's electronic properties, which are superior to those of silicon. Compound semiconductor technologies are being used to develop the next generation of electronics for 5G networks and satellite broadband to connect the world.  OSD and DARPA Investment Technologists saw the initial benefit of these electronic properties and began developing GaAs from the late 1970s, but a big boost came from a major investment from the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). These organizations initiated the Microwave and Millimeter Wave Integrated Circuits (MIMIC) program to develop this young technology for airborne phased array radar and smart munitions. Because of MIMIC, our battlefield commanders can receive and transmit secure communications to and from anywhere on earth.  RFMD and the Cellphone Explosion As part of the MIMIC program, the government encouraged commercialization of the technology to support the production volumes needed to keep manufacturing processes healthy for high yield and lower cost. In the early '90s, RFMD (today known as Qorvo) and Northrop Grumman developed GaAs cellphone power amplifiers. These amplifiers had better efficiency for longer talk time, a decreased amount of current "leakage" when the amplifier is switched off for longer standby time, and lower cost than existing technologies due to its smaller chip area. Better user experience and lower cost are gold in the commercial marketspace, and because of that the use of this technology grew exponentially. Today, more than 90% of the world's cellphones use GaAs technology for the transmitter power amplifier. Qorvo, which grew from RFMD, is one of the leaders.  Bringing it back to OSD and DARPA The initial MIMIC program investment led to U.S. leadership in the commercial GaAs industry, which has led to thousands of high-paying manufacturing jobs throughout the U.S. This represents a real success story that has benefited both our nation's space and defense capability and our high-technology commercial industry.  Next Generation of Small Technologists have since turned their sights to indium phosphide and gallium nitride, as well as 2.5D and 3D integration technologies, like DAHI, to merge these technologies with advanced silicon technologies. These technologies are starting to have a similar impact on both defense and commercial applications for even greater capabilities in even smaller packages.  Northrop Grumman is always looking for people to broaden their career in research and development. Join our team and work on the next generation of small. 

Small Things Can Connect the World

The role of the space program in creating earthly "space spinoff" products, including grocery items, is a matter of legend. (It is also true.) Less well-known — but with even greater impact on your kitchen shelves and countertop — is the role of military technology in the development of the modern kitchen. Some of these defense innovations found their way into your kitchen by accident. Others — most of them, in fact — are no accident at all, but arose out of efforts to keep soldiers (along with sailors, airmen and marines) well-fed and healthy. Napoleon Bonaparte once said: "An army marches on its stomach." Over the ages, for every battle won by better weapons or tactics, a dozen have been won by soldiers who went into battle healthy and well-fed, facing enemies who were half-starved, scattered to forage for food or who deserted outright in search of something to eat. Just Open a Can Napoleon himself contributed to one of the first and most familiar kitchen innovations of the dawning industrial era: canned foods. Until his day, the list of foods that would keep well without spoiling was very limited. Heavily salted meat and "hardtack" biscuit were the staple foods of soldiers and seamen. Seeking better rations for his troops, Napoleon offered a prize for a way to keep food fresh. And, writes Nicola Twilley of Popular Science, the competition gave a key boost to the new spoilage-preventing technology of canning. We've been stealing a bite or two straight from the can ever since. "Nuke It" in the Microwave Technology Companies like Northrop Grumman provide extensive capabilities in microwave technology essential to many sensors, communication systems and even directed energy weapons. But microwaves can also do a great job heating up a three-day old burrito. A World War II military innovation, radar, gets the credit for enabling you to "nuke" food quickly. And unlike canned foods, this piece of kitchen technology was a sheer accident. As Evan Ackerman recounts at IEEE Spectrum, the accident happened just after the war in 1946. A researcher was working with a magnetron, the device that generates the microwaves used by radar sets. He had a candy bar in his pocket, and in the middle of his work, he felt something warm and soft. Microwave energy had melted the candy bar. Further development led to the microwave oven, but its origins in military research explains why people still sometimes call the kitchen microwave a radar oven. From McRibs to Power Bars Radar tech may have reached the kitchen by accident, but World War II was when military kitchen technology research really took off. As with Napoleon, the goal was to provide service members with a wider variety of food that kept well and could be prepared easily. These research efforts, now centered at the Combat Feeding Directorate of the Natick Soldier Research, Development & Engineering Center (NSRDEC) in Massachusetts, began as early as the 1920s at the Quartermaster Subsistence School, then in the 1930s at the Chicago Quartermaster Depot. With the coming of war, universities and industry were enlisted in the effort which, according to Popular Science, gave us everything from the "prefabricated module of meat" — it sounds tastier as a McRib — to pressure-sealed packages of fruit juice, and much more. Even the exercise enthusiast's power bar, which many think of as thoroughly contemporary, goes back to World War II, when their precursors were designed as emergency rations for the battlefield. And if you don't really like them very much, blame the Pentagon. The original specification said that they should not taste too good so that GIs would save them until needed instead of munching them down first chance they got. Military Research in the Deli Section The battlefield has changed since World War II, not to mention Napoleon. But one thing that has not changed is the critical importance of wholesome food to troops' health, energy and morale. Outdoor Life testifies that the military's MRE (Meal Ready to Eat) — now also a staple for wilderness hikers — actually tastes pretty good, even if servicemembers won't admit it. (Griping about the chow is a soldier's timeless right!) And new military research creations continue to flow into our kitchens. As Nadia Whitehead recounts at NPR, one of the NSRDEC's more recent innovations, dating to the 2000s, is high pressure processing (HPP). If your deli meat has no preservatives, it was probably made using HPP. Military technology innovations that help keep that pilot healthy and alert could well end up doing the same for you and your family in the kitchen. 

Military Technology Gave You Microwave Popcorn

Hurtling asteroids are in the news again. According to CNET, 2006 QV89, a lump of rock half the size of a football field, has a slight chance (one in 7,000) of hitting Earth this fall. Meanwhile, KQED reports that a larger asteroid named Apophis will make a very close pass in 2029, coming closer than the television and telephone satellites that orbit the Earth. Planetary Defense: Not Just Science Fiction Luckily, the chances of Apophis slamming directly into us have been reduced from an earlier estimate of 2.7% to "practically nil." Even if Apophis misses us, there is a chance of an asteroid eventually hitting Earth. A really large asteroid could wipe us out, just as one wiped out the dinosaurs millions of years ago, says KQED. Even an asteroid a mere thousand feet across — about the size of Apophis, notes KQED — could hit Earth with 1,000 times the energy of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, destroying any city in its path and devastating an entire region, says EarthSky.org. In the golden age of science fiction, planetary defense usually meant guarding Earth against malicious aliens or the occasional fleet of rebel space colonists. Now, according to NASA's planetary defense web pages, it means guarding Earth against boulders and mountains left over from the creation of the planets. Eyes on the Skies Foresight is essential in preventing an asteroid hitting Earth. Until recently, there was no systematic effort to track asteroids that pass near Earth. According to KQED, an Apophis-sized asteroid passed us closer than the moon in 2001 — but one knew it until 2017, when it was tracked, and analysis of its orbit revealed the earlier near miss. Now, as the NASA planetary defense FAQ reports, the detection and tracking elements of defense are coming together, making it likely that we will know of any collision threat years in advance. How to Shoot Down an Asteroid When we know an asteroid's path in advance, we can deflect it. The goal of deflection, says Space.com, is to "nudge" the asteroid into a slightly different orbit, so that it misses the Earth instead of slamming into us. A very slight nudge is sufficient if done early enough before the predicted impact. A velocity change of one meter per second adds up to roughly 20,000 miles in a year — five times Earth's radius, or the difference between impact and a clean miss. (Orbital dynamics can complicate this picture, but small changes in speed still add up over time.) So, how do you nudge an asteroid? Hitting it with a nuclear bomb is a Hollywood favorite, but it might break it apart if hit it too hard. Then you just have several smaller asteroids to contend with — one or more of which may still be on a collision course with Earth. For this reason, the favored technique is a kinetic impactor, a spacecraft that hits the asteroid hard enough to move it into a slightly different orbit, but not so hard as to break it into fragments. NASA is already in the planning stages of a mission to test the idea on an asteroid called Didymos B, due to pass conveniently (but not dangerously) close to Earth in 2022 and 2024. Alas, for Hollywood, a kinetic impactor requires neither a nuclear warhead nor astronauts, since the impactor will hit the asteroid at several miles per second. Planetary defense will, therefore, be strictly a robotic mission.

Asteroid Attack: Planetary Defense Gets Real

 Drone warfare is about to change in ways that could change the nature of warfare itself.  Right now, ISIS has figured out how to weaponize off-the-shelf drones, using quadcopters to drop bombs on Iraqi soldiers. Their use of attack drones has made the hobbyist aircraft the latest asymmetrical threat, evolving from use for reconnaissance into a scaled-down, $200 version of the attack drones used widely by the U.S. military in the Middle East.  With help from U.S. targeting technology, Iraqi fighters have been able to destroy some of those drones on the wing, Defense Systems reported in a February 2017 article. But the U.S. military is looking at more innovative ways to stop drone attacks. A system that jams radio transmissions used to control drones is already in testing, and the Pentagon would like to find other ways to protect targets from attack.  Each year, the Department of Defense hosts Black Dart, a live-fly, live-fire exercise for testing new counter-drone technology. Among the defenses against attack drones demonstrated there in 2016 was Northrop Grumman's Mobile Application for UAS Identification (MAUI). According to GlobalNewswire, it's a "mobile acoustic sensor that operates on Android cellphones and uses the phone's microphone to detect Group 1 drones" — those that weigh less than 20 pounds, fly lower than 1,200 feet and fly slower than 100 knots.   Enable targeting cookies to view this content.  In November, DARPA issued a request for proposals for a $63-million contract to develop drone-defense systems for military convoys, RT reported. One of the challenges is making such a system small and energy-efficient enough to ride aboard a Humvee or a 25-foot Coast Guard patrol boat.  France's military is developing a system that would satisfy that requirement, and hearkens back to medieval arts of war. A French military unit has raised four golden eagles from chicks, training them to attack and bring down drones, the Washington Post reports. If you saw the viral video of one drone's final moments in 2014, you know how effective birds of prey can be against your average quadcopter. [skyword_iframe src="//www.youtube.com/embed/AhDG_WBIQgc" width="560" height="315" ]  But the Pentagon isn't interested in eagles. The RFP specifically states that DARPA won't consider any proposals that use live animals. Lasers are also out.  Beyond defending against asymmetrical attacks using off-the-shelf drones turned deadly, the Pentagon may be looking ahead to defending against the next generation of attack drones. A system the Pentagon is developing, called Perdix, would employ a swarm of AI drones, each not much bigger than the size of a human hand. The drones, called Perdix, can communicate with each other, and learn and adapt to conditions in order to locate targets and communicate with weapons systems elsewhere, CBS reported.  Defending against an attack like that will require new technology — a fact demonstrated by an unnamed U.S. ally that used a $3-million Patriot missile to take down a $200 attack drone, as reported by Business Insider.  "You have maybe 100 or 1,000 surface-to-air missiles," Col. Travis Burdine, Air Force division chief for unmanned aircraft, said in April 2017, according to FlightGlobal. "But we're going to hit you with 10,000 [drones]."  That kind of tactic could be used to penetrate a nation's radar defenses, Burdine said, with some drones acting as decoys, others as target finders and still others carrying weapons, themselves.  Be at the forefront of cutting-edge research and development in drone technology by joining the team at Northrop Grumman.

An Answer to ISIS Attack Drones and a New Kind of Aerial Warfare

In the civilian world, algorithms help humans make sense of massive amounts of data to support faster, better decision-making. These mathematical instructions enable computers to lighten the mental load so that we can make split-second decisions in scenarios where we're faced with many options. On the battlefield, they can even help warfighters — and the intelligent machines on which they rely — make the right decisions quickly in critical situations. Algorithms and Human Innovation While we once watched television on just a few channels, we now have thousands of movies and shows available on demand. An algorithm that runs behind your favorite streaming platform can help you decide what to watch next by suggesting shows that are similar to others you've watched. But algorithms are also helping with more serious decisions, such as those that come with hiring employees and investing in startups, according to Harvard Business Review, or even identifying cancer, as Nature points out. Just as a robot can handle dull or dangerous tasks in a factory, computers can handle the tedious aspects of decision-making, freeing up humans to use their intuition, creativity and emotional intelligence to innovate. For instance, instead of having a physician search through thousands of CT scans to find early markers of cancer, an algorithm could do the research, giving time back to the physician for more complex decision-making, such as determining the proper course of treatment for their patient. Likewise, mathematical equations are also being used to speed processes, simplify functions and enable greater human innovation in the defense industry. Algorithmic Building Blocks of JADC2 Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) aims to connect platforms and weapons across a common architecture. The ability to sift through data is becoming more important as new and legacy systems grow more interconnected in modern military networks, and sharing information among all branches of the U.S. military and its allies is an essential aspect of warfare in the digital age. But empowering the Joint Force is a complex issue. The defense industry is working to give military personnel access to as much information as possible while also avoiding clutter. This requires adding sensors to everything, connecting military systems through a secure communications network and ultimately making sense of all the data that's collected and transmitted. That's where algorithms can help clear the clutter. If a civilian vehicle can automatically turn on the windshield wipers when it rains or activate the brakes to avoid a collision, imagine what a military vehicle could do. For example, a fighter jet or tanker could make its own decisions by automatically taking an action if a certain set of circumstances occurs. In these cases, simple decisions with predictable outcomes wouldn't have to be made by human personnel, which could help reduce the crew's workload. Remaining Challenges Military environments aren't always predictable. No matter how many scenarios you test an algorithm on in the lab, there may be unexpected situations on the battlefield. How will algorithms respond to brand-new situations they haven't seen before? When should a human intervene? These questions pose challenges that are still being considered and solved. This is an era of transition between legacy and cutting-edge systems. Transformational technology, such as Northrop Grumman's Distributed Autonomy/Responsive Control system, can provide clues and insight for humans to help them make the final decisions. The system strikes a balance between autonomy and human control through collaborative autonomy, an essential building block of modern defense systems and a critical factor in the Joint Force's success. Algorithms might not amount to a cyborg army straight out of science fiction, but they can grant our forces superhuman decision-making capabilities, even in situations of intense pressure. Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Algorithms Are Powering Collaborative Autonomy for the Joint Force

Time marches on and military uniform technology keeps pace. When Spartans pounded the dusty earth flat with their sandals, their crimson cloaks and round shields prefaced the ferocity of their intent. Spiked Roman helmets and 2-meter-tall spears highlighted their wealth as a fighting force. Military uniform technology has come a long way since, with massive leaps forward over the last century. Let's take a look at some historical military uniform materials, what today's military forces are wearing and what we can expect tomorrow. Historical Military Uniform Materials The British made a major mark on history with their iconic uniforms. Red coats provided a consistent look — but also gave them away as they marched through the swamps and forests of pre-revolutionary America. After declaring independence, to set themselves apart from Britain, the early U.S. Continental Army wore blue wool coats, red sashes and tri-cornered hats. By the next formal battle with the British, those hats had grown tall, conical and feathered. The blue coats had white collars rising stiffly to just below the ears. For the U.S.-Mexican war and U.S. Civil War, the wool stayed, but the Army caps became short, squat "forage" caps — hats that could be worn into the wood and fields while foraging for horse food. Collars flattened and fanned out in the Army as well as in the increasingly powerful U.S. Navy. Blue wool was sometimes swapped for gray, depending on what was available and on what side of the conflict the U.S. soldier was standing. The Spanish-American War came at the turn of the 19th century — and with it, a shift from wool to cotton, plus a new color scheme: khaki. Khaki was popularized in the mid 1800s by (again) the British, who by then were occupying tropical climates. The four tones of khaki darkened into olive and brown for World War I and II. Light windbreakers and cargo pants became combat fashion during Korea and Vietnam. Mirroring the Marines, by Operation Desert Storm, the Army battle dress had adopted a collage of camouflage patterns, culminating in 2004 as the Army Combat Uniform (ACU). These digital patterns incorporated almost every color seen to date, including gray, brown, beige, browns and tans, and green tones not yet seen before in warfare. These multicolor palettes allowed the wearer to visually blend in — to be cloaked, as it were, by their surroundings. Armored Uniforms The desire to stand out at a distance may have faded, but the need to project power and protect soldiers remains strong. Where protection from harm at close-range was once provided by swirling cloaks, solid wood panels or wool coats, modern uniform technology now blends the shields into the body of the fabric itself. Advanced functional materials, sometimes called smart skins, use adaptive, nano-scale carbon tubes and polymer layers strong enough to filter out chemical agents, water and even viruses. These military uniform materials act like masks but are shaped into shirts, pants and undergarments. The uniforms' responses are dynamic, changing properties as needed. Is the soldier standing under the sun, running sweating? Such factors compelled a shift to more breathable cotton uniforms in the 1960s and 70s. Today, polymer layers can transform at the molecular level to let the fabric breathe that moisture out. In other words, cooling can be blended directly into the smart skin. If it's raining, smart uniform materials can flip on an atomic dime, keeping that water from penetrating through layers. Where soldiers used to have to wear gas masks, these new materials wrap the soldier in a full-body gas mask. The polymer layers can collapse down to seal off the fabric from the outside in. These reinforced fibers aren't solely benefitting people going into battle either. Carbon fibers — once so expensive they could only be used on jets and high-end aircraft — are being bonded to car frames to improve strength and safety. Ultra thin materials help hazmat teams clear accident sites while safeguarding the rescue crew. In the 1940s, citizens sacrificed silk and nylon for war-effort parachutes. Today, firepeople, surgeons, pilots, athletes and more are benefiting from upgrades that were initially invented to protect members of the military. Tomorrow's Military Uniforms Military uniform materials have continually changed, optimized and adapted to suit the times. White socks have become black. The Combat Cloth Face Covering has gone from multicolored to solid. What's worn onto modern battlefield not only reflects our cultural priorities and standards, but it can also quite literally reflect the sun, repel the rain, bend force away from the body of the wearer, absorb sweat or deflect sarin gas. Updated threats require upgraded military uniform materials and uniform technology. Evolving demands to remain connected and concealed have resulted in embedded flexible electronics that can track, link and even potentially cloak the wearer from detection by light vision or infrared radiation. Perhaps the fiercest cloak of all is, in the end, the one the enemy never saw coming. Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Blending in: Military Uniform Materials Get a Boost

Key Takeaways  The U.S. military denies the existence of unidentified flying objects (UFOs) but acknowledges the existence of unidentified aerial phenomena (UAP). Of the 12,000 UFO reports collected by the U.S. Air Force between 1952 and 1969, only 6% could not be explained. In a 2021 report on UAPs, 143 out of 144 sightings remain unexplained.The U.S. government recently confirmed reports by military pilots of unidentified aerial phenomena (UAP), which are more commonly called unidentified flying objects (UFOs). The government also acknowledged the need to better understand UAP for the purpose of pilot safety and national security. There was no mention of aliens from other planets visiting Earth, but the possibility was not ruled out. For decades, the U.S. government has denied the existence of UFOs, making this a major step.History of UFO SightingsThe first widely reported UFO sighting was made on June 24, 1947, by an amateur pilot named Kenneth Arnold, as The Atlantic explains. Mr. Arnold was flying from his home in Idaho to an air show in Oregon and took a detour to Mount Rainier, Washington.Suddenly, Mr. Arnold saw a flash of bright blue-white light, followed by nine additional flashes in rapid succession. The lights were coming from nine "circular-type" objects moving in unison through the sky. Using the mountains as landmarks and the clock on his dashboard, Mr. Arnold estimated that the objects traveled a distance of 50 miles in 1 minute and 42 seconds before disappearing from view. This would be twice the speed of sound. Mr. Arnold was surprised, but thought the flying objects might be new military aircraft.After arriving in Oregon, Mr. Arnold described the unidentified flying objects he had seen to a reporter. As an experienced pilot, respected businessman and family man, Mr. Arnold appeared to be a credible witness. The local newspaper published a brief article, which was picked up by The Associated Press and reported across the country. Some of the news outlets used the term "flying saucer," which ignited the public's imagination.By the end of 1947 — just six months after Mr. Arnold's UFO sighting — a total of 140 newspapers from across the United States and Canada had reported on 853 UFO sightings. Flying saucers would soon become ubiquitous in comic books, TV shows and movies.The Military Denies all Evidence of UFOsJust two weeks after Mr. Arnold's UFO sighting, the Air Force felt compelled to issue a statement about the crash of a military weather balloon in Roswell, New Mexico. The incident had initially been reported as a possible "flying disk" crash. The Air Force explanation did not have the desired effect, and "Roswell" is still synonymous with UFOs and theories about government conspiracies to conceal evidence of extraterrestrial activity on Earth.The Army did send officials to talk to Mr. Arnold, and they officially concluded that he had either seen a mirage or was hallucinating. Nonetheless, UFO sightings persisted. Given the possibility that UFOs might be sophisticated Soviet aircraft, the U.S. Air Force launched a UFO investigation called Project Blue Book in 1952. As Britannica explains, 12,000 reports of UFO sightings or related events were collected from 1952 to 1969. Only 6% could not be explained, and then only because of insufficient information. The project was shut down. For decades, the military would continue to deny any evidence of flying objects that could not be explained, which further emboldened conspiracy theorists.The Military Acknowledges Existence of UAPThe document acknowledging the existence of UAP came from the Office of the Director of National Intelligence in June 2021. It is a preliminary intelligence assessment of the threat posed by UAP and the progress made by the Department of Defense in understanding the threat.The report focused on events that occurred between 2004 and 2021, with the majority occurring within the last two years. This increase is because a standardized UAP reporting system was first established by the Navy in 2019 and was fully adopted in 2020. The document uses the term "unidentified aerial phenomena" to remove the stigma associated with discussing UFOs.The report focused on UAP witnessed firsthand by military pilots and those registered on aircraft sensors including radar, infrared, electro-optical and weapons seekers. These sensors can provide accurate information about relative size, shape, structure, velocity and range.The Military Explanation for UAPOf the 144 reports of UAP included in this UFO investigation, 80 involved multiple sensors. Most UAP appeared to be physical objects. One was identified with high confidence as a large, deflating balloon. The remaining 143 UAP remain unexplained.All UAP incidents are expected to eventually be included in one of five categories: Airborne clutter (birds, balloons, recreational drones, plastic bags) Natural atmospheric phenomena (ice crystals, moisture, thermal fluctuations) USA or industry developmental programs (classified government programs) Foreign adversary systems (advanced aircraft by countries other than the USA that use breakthrough technology) Other (UAP without enough data to be identified and alien spacecraft)In 18 reports, UAP exhibited unusual movement patterns and "appeared to remain stationary in winds aloft, move against the wind, maneuver abruptly, or move at considerable speed, without discernible means of propulsion." These patterns could be due to sensor errors or observer misperception, but they could also be due to breakthrough technologies (from Earth) or aliens.A Recent Increase in UFO Sightings?The New York Times and other media outlets have reported that UFO sightings increased in 2020. This has largely been attributed to the COVID-19 pandemic and more people looking up at the night sky because they had nowhere to go.The National UFO Reporting Center (founded in 1974) and the Mutual UFO Network (founded in 1969) are non-government agencies that collect information about and investigate UFO sightings. The vast majority of sightings can be attributed to satellites, meteors, the planet Venus, birds, bats, planes, drones and the light playing tricks on the eye or the camera lens. Serious UFO researchers know that humans are not adept at gauging the size, speed and distance of an object in the air, especially when there are no background objects for comparison.A small percentage of UFO sightings remain unexplained, but that percentage does not change when more sightings are reported. Oftentimes, an increase in reports can be traced to UFO stories in the news — such as the ones covering the recently released government report on unidentified aerial phenomena.The vast majority of unidentified flying objects are definitely not due to aliens. However, astronomers estimate that there are 300 million habitable worlds in the Milky Way galaxy alone — it isn't unreasonable to look.Long the site of extraterrestrial speculation, Area 51 may indeed be more than meets the eye. Learn more.

UFO Sightings Are Real, but Aliens Are Not Responsible

Sensors are usually embedded or hidden, so it's easy to take them for granted, but they are sophisticated devices that deserve a second look. The technology behind them has dramatically improved in the last couple decades and research and development continues to expand future capabilities. While the basic sensor has existed in various forms since the late 1800s, this century's version is smaller, more precise and more reliable. The latest versions are also multifunctional. Just like our smartphones are capable of doing much more than phone calls, a modern sensor can also multitask. Ed Eberl, Chief Technologist at Northrop Grumman's Amherst Systems unit explains, "At one instant a sensor could be acting as a communications link — transferring data back and forth — and then an instant later it could be acting like a radar tracking a target, and another instant later it can be jamming something, trying to detect someone else's communications." Sensors Are Everywhere With the Internet of Things, it might seem like sensors are already everywhere (from your coffee maker to your watch), but this is just the beginning. The optical sensing market is projected to grow to $3.46 billion by 2023 (three times greater than in 2016). Sensors are essential for consumer electronics such as wearable fitness trackers, virtual reality, smartphones and gadgets that haven't been invented yet. They are also increasingly used for industrial applications, such as allowing factories to automate manufacturing and shipping goods. There is massive potential in the medical field, since they can be used to provide doctors with detailed information about patients' health in real time. Sensors are components in the latest medical devices but they can also be embedded directly into the body to track heart rate, muscle movement and biomarkers. Many recent advancements in sensor technology were initiated by military projects. The Distributed Aperture System (DAS) sensor, for example, can give pilots the benefits of collision avoidance, weather tracking, night vision, ground mapping and early warnings of any incoming missile threats. While this type of high-tech situational awareness was originally meant for the military, similar technology is now being used by automakers to improve safety features and even create self-driving vehicles. Today's vehicles can already detect cars passing in blind spots and warn drivers if they drift into the wrong lane. Smart pressure sensors are a critical component to how airbags function in smart cars. Some automakers, such as Tesla, even offer autopilot mode for highway driving. No doubt, tomorrow's fully autonomous cars will be loaded with multifunction sensors. Sensor Technology Improved Modern challenges — whether in military or civilian settings — demand high-tech goods that require a sensor. Fortunately, two major factors have driven recent improvements in sensor technology. Researchers have greatly improved signal conversion, where you take a microwave signal and convert it into a digital format. The accuracy with which the latest devices can measure a radio frequency signal is constantly increasing because engineers keep developing faster and faster data converters. In addition to these more precise measurements, a second aspect has continued to improve at the same time: processing power. So now, better measurements are taken and they can be processed quickly on site or even in-flight. In the military, for example, there used to be intelligence platforms that would go out into the field and collect signals. This data would be recorded and sent back to an analysis center at a different ground location. Now, with the advancements in computing power and higher sampling rates, more information can be extracted in real time and analysis can be done right from the fighter jets. As sensors become more precise, the artifacts which hold them are becoming smaller, reducing the weight of the airframe. Another advancement in sensor technology is how multifunction sensor arrays are evolving. Typically, a set of sensors is assigned to work together to perform a task. A multifunction array is a collection of many smaller sensors, and each of these individual sensors can be independently assigned a specific task or function. The parameters of individual sensors can also be controlled to "point" the array in a desired direction. Think of a multifunction array as an LED light fixture. One LED bulb by itself may not be bright enough, but several of them can illuminate an entire area. Sensors work similarly. One of them may not be able to detect a target or signal, but a group of them working in unison provides increased sensitivity to perform a task. Because sensors play such an integral role in a variety devices and applications, advancements in their form and function are not only expected, but inevitable. Anticipating Future Capabilities What will a sensor be able to do in the next few years? Anything is possible. Eberl and his colleagues have to anticipate future capabilities. His team provides simulation and testing so that the engineers who are developing new devices can work out any bugs. One of these testing simulators — the Combat Electromagnetic Environment SIMulator (CEESIM) — provides RF simulation of multiple, simultaneous emitters so that engineers can see how their devices respond to the most complicated potential scenarios. The challenge is anticipating the many ways that a multifunction sensor will be used in the future. For example, recent improvements allow for a large array of individual sensors to be subdivided into multiple groups of sensors, each performing a different task. These types of array can perform multiple tasks simultaneously. Think of your cell phone and the multiple things you can do from this one device -- talk to a friend, while scrolling through an app to order dinner and have the big game streaming in the background -- all at the same time. Similarly, CEESIM needs to be able to test multiple different functions at the same time. "This is an exciting challenge for us," Eberl says, "to have to simulate all the different types of signals and different types of utilization of that sensor in a very dynamic environment because we as a simulator don't know what the sensor is going be doing from instant to instant." Check out opportunities to join Northrop Grumman's effort to predict the future at our career page.

The Incredible Shrinking Sensors and Their Massive Growth

Clearing houses as part of a U.S. military-led campaign to rout al-Qaeda, two servicemen were met with machine gun fire the moment they walked into a dimly lit house in the Iraqi city of Fallujah. One of those men was Matthew Palacios, a staff sergeant and combat engineer in the Second Marine Division. The Army infantryman in front of Palacios was shot and fell to the ground, wounded. Then a grenade rolled between Palacios' legs. Now an employee of Northrop Grumman, this military veteran looks beyond his own career-shaping experiences. Ever cognizant of the meaning of Memorial Day, he remembers those who died while serving in the hopes that he can honor the sacrifices of these fallen heroes. Heroism in Battle Palacios confesses to just barely doing enough to get by in high school. All he wanted to do was be a Marine, a dream that began after reading military histories and watching war movies when he was younger. Palacios had never played competitive sports while growing up in Lorraine, Ohio, a blue-collar steel town outside of Cleveland. But in that cramped house in Fallujah, with no time to think, he grabbed the grenade, ran a few steps and threw it into another room -- much like a shortstop throws to first base, he recalled. The grenade exploded at a distance, sparing his life and those of the service members alongside him. For this act of bravery, Palacios received the Bronze Star and the Purple Heart. "I was so close to dying," he said of his daily routines in Iraq. "Almost being blown up in an ambush IED attack or being shot at and hearing the whizzing of the bullets and seeing the concrete snap off a wall near you or hitting the tree above you — there were so many situations." A Life After War After two deployments during the Iraq War, Palacios left the Marine Corps with two medals and a newfound sense of confidence as a military veteran, which helped him to pursue a degree in aerospace engineering — something he would have never dreamed of in high school. He eventually earned that bachelor's degree in 2014. Palacios joined Northrop Grumman in 2017 where he is a structural engineer, performing structural analysis on spaceflight hardware. "It's exciting to work on these projects...things to go into space," he said. But he couldn't imagine having the job without first serving in the military. "I gained the confidence I needed. I realized I can actually do it," Palacios said. "I don't feel like I got smarter in the Marine Corps, but it gave me the confidence and discipline to make a plan on a particular goal and follow through." The Importance of Memorial Day A day after that battle in Fallujah, his best friend in the Marines was killed in action. Palacios will always remember returning to the U.S. to recuperate from his injuries and attend his fallen friend's funeral. After meeting "his family and newborn son who will never know who he is," the meaning of Memorial Day, and the selfless sacrifice of our military veterans, will never be far from Matthew Palacios' mind.

A Military Veteran Who Followed His Dream to Northrop Grumman

Perhaps it was someone's dark sense of humor, but whoever created the acronym 'C4ISR' surely did so with a wry smile. As an acronym, it almost single-handedly makes the case that defense and security agencies have an unhealthy appetite for unsightly abbreviations. It's hard to disagree that acronyms can be obstacles to clear communication, especially those that combine letters and numbers, and it is a doozy. Let's start though by acknowledging that acronyms serve a useful purpose; without them we'd repeat ourselves ... a lot! Acronyms can be valuable shorthand for complex and important constructs or concepts.  C4ISR is a terrific example of where an acronym helps avoid repetition. After all, who wants to say Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance more times that you must? 'C4ISR' helps us put together arguably the most important elements of the infrastructure of global national security into a single, memorable term. While it's easy to remember the acronym— after all, we do tend to remember awkward terms — it's not as easy to recall, or even agree, what it means precisely. There's a danger that, as it comes to mean many things to many people, it won't have one common meaning to anyone. We should all understand, in broad and easily-shared terms, the value of the capabilities encapsulated in C4ISR. Ron 'Squeek' Henry, Strategy Manager, Airborne C4ISR Division at Northrop Grumman has a simple definition. "C4ISR is about gaining decision superiority to enable mission success." More specifically, Squeek defines C4ISR as the network of platforms, sensors, communications nodes, and decision aids which connects systems to operators.  This networked web seamlessly operates across domains, fuses data, adapts and evolves with the mission, while ensuring high speed, decision quality data to the operator at the tactical edge he says. "It's the web that joins platforms, payloads, sensors and people."  Imagine a world where you can mobilize a response team before a disaster fully unfolds, or send military intelligence in real time to help save soldiers' lives and ensure mission success. You don't need to imagine it: Today C4ISR is helping solve the world's toughest security challenges through groundbreaking software and highly advanced technology.  "The key to effective C4ISR is optimizing the functionality, synchronization and interoperability of land, sea, air, cyber and space systems to rapidly turn data, non-kinetic effects and intelligence into mission-winning action with superior tactical battle management," Squeek said. "It's about providing a decisive advantage to the warfighter," he added. It may be an ugly acronym, but C4ISR systems provide critical decision-making intelligence and allow security forces to sense, share, collaborate and act with greater speed and assurance, and that's a beautiful thing.  If you want to learn more abour Northrop Grumman's C4ISR technology check it out here.

C4ISR: An Ugly Acronym for a Key to Global Security

 The Battle of the Coral Sea was about the strategy of dealing with an unseen enemy. Nearly all competitive strategies have an element of knowing your opponent to gain the upper hand. For centuries, military forces have designated individuals and groups to provide reconnaissance and intelligence on enemy forces. In modern military technology, this is often wrapped up in the acronym C4ISR, which stands for Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance.  Enable targeting cookies to view this content. Use of Technology  Military powers of the past would employ whatever technology they had available. Take the 1942 Battle of the Coral Sea, the first naval engagement between two fleets that never even saw each other. That battle was possibly due to the use of SIGINT (signals intelligence) by U.S. forces, who located the Japanese fleet using CXAM radar.  This engagement of naval fleets was fought primarily by air from aircraft carriers. The first aircraft into the fight were Northrop Grumman F4F-3, launched from the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown. The F4F fighter plane was a fighting staple of World War II and now has a place in the Smithsonian Museum. New Military Technology  Fighter plane technology has grown exponentially since the days of the F4F Wildcat. Take, for example, the Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider. Packed with the best of today's stealth technology, the B-21 is an update to the iconic stealth bomber, the B-2, which itself holds records including longest bomber run (44 hours). For those pilots over the Coral Sea during World War II, the aerial endurance demonstrated by the B-21 would have looked like something out of science fiction.  Technology has come a long way, and aviation and naval suppliers require knowledge in a variety of fields. The B-21 is still a work in progress, which means teams of engineers are working to integrate the newest radar and sensing technologies, but the computing power of a single modern bomber today exceeds the total that existed globally during World War II.  One of the reasons for this computational power is the simple need for data processing. Even a commercial surveying unmanned aerial vehicle, used in construction and mining industries, is capable of modeling a full 3-D model of the surrounding terrain. Couple that capability with personnel movement, anti-detection and stealth technologies, and communications systems, and the sophistication just keeps growing. Once airborne, the aircraft of today are outfitted with enough sensing technology that getting lost is nearly impossible.  Even without seeing the ships they were battling, the vessels engaged in the Battle of the Coral Sea built an understanding of their unseen enemies' movements. This command of intelligence was crucial to preventing damage. Ultimately, the Battle of the Coral Sea ended with both sides suffering aircraft losses.  As a leader in C4ISR, Northrop Grumman enables vehicles and vessels of all types to find their way effectively. From autonomous systems that can make on-the-fly decisions to sensing technology that can pinpoint the location of a threat, today's military machines are even more refined in the art of automated and sightless combat. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

How the Battle of the Coral Sea Changed Military Technology

Blockchain technology, the online ledger used to track bitcoin transactions, has proven to be useful for the business world. Unfortunately, criminals, extremist organizations and hostile foreign powers could also employ it for their uses. Blockchain's nefarious potential has prompted the U.S. Senate to call for a Department of Defense study to look at how the technology might be used to hurt or help U.S. security, according to The Washington Times. While there are few instances so far of criminal and terrorist use of blockchain, the potential is real. However, the means of countering blockchain that the DoD is likely to study are still being worked out. That means there's a race between weaponizing blockchain and finding effective countermeasures. How the Bad Guys Could Use Blockchain   Blockchain is an online ledger that is seemingly impossible to tamper with. As ZDNet explained, the idea behind the technology is to broadcast every transaction to the community. When a majority of that community agrees that all transactions seen in the recent past are unique, those transactions are cryptographically sealed into a block. "A chain thereby grows, each new block linked to the previously accepted history, preserving every spend ever made," ZDNet said. The transaction is hard or impossible to influence because rather than being stored on a single server, blockchain is distributed across the world via a network of private computers. As Marc Andreessen, co-partner of Silicon Valley venture capital firm Andreessen Horowitz, wrote in The New York Times, bitcoin and blockchain "gives us, for the first time, a way for one Internet user to transfer a unique piece of digital property to another Internet user, such that the transfer is guaranteed to be safe and secure, everyone knows that the transfer has taken place and nobody can challenge the legitimacy of the transfer. The consequences of this breakthrough are hard to overstate." That includes the potential negative consequences. As Interpol's Christian Karam told attendees at the Black Hat Asia conference, blockchain could also be used to provide access to illicit content or malware control mechanisms that, once posted, would be hard to remove, according to Forbes. Thankfully, the real-life examples of such blockchain abuse have been few. Last year, someone uploaded the decades-old Stoned virus to blockchain, security blogger Graham Cluley explained. But that instance appears to have been harmless. To demonstrate the security dangers of blockchain, researchers at the United Kingdom's University of Newcastle also created ZombieCoin, a botnet command and control mechanism that can send commands to malware on bitcoin's network. Saving Blockchain from Itself  Enable targeting cookies to view this content. One saving grace of blockchain is that every transaction is recorded. Even if criminals shield their identity, they leave a digital trail that's often of use to investigators. Chainanalysis, a firm that tracks such data, has worked with the FBI, the IRS and the SEC, among other government entities in the U.S. and Europe, for this purpose, MIT Technology Review noted. One lingering concern is the emergence of quantum computing — a technology that uses qubits instead of bits to perform unfathomably complex transactions. A hacker using quantum computing could hack blockchain, but engineers are working on countermeasures, according to the International Business Times. Blockchain technology is so new — it has only been around for about a decade — that hackers and security pros are still working out ways to exploit and preserve the system, respectively. The proposed DoD study shows that blockchain is far enough along to be a powerful tool and a potentially powerful weapon.

Blockchain Technology's Dark Side Worries the Department of Defense

"We would rather not know," are words rarely uttered in science. Unless, of course, the question is something like, "What would happen if an asteroid hit Earth?" In the case of an asteroid big enough to cause harm, not to mention an earthquake, a tidal wave and/or the end of life as we know it, we'd very much like to avoid discovering the answer to that particular question first-hand.  Never finding out what would happen if an asteroid hits Earth is the primary goal of planetary defense, the pursuit of which involves locating, tracking and even moving asteroids out of Earth's planetary flightpath.    Close Encounters of the Rocky Kind    The first step toward avoiding the answer to, "What would happen if an asteroid hit Earth?" is asking, "Where are the asteroids that might hit Earth?" and then, "Which of the ones headed our way do we need to worry about?"    The answer to this second question is easier to lock down. Literal tons of small rocks and interstellar dust fall onto our planet's atmosphere every day. These smaller objects burn up in the blink of an eye. Most asteroids fall in that pebble-to-baseball-to-motorcycle size range. If the space rock in question is more metal or carbon than silica — less like a rock and more like a cannonball or a lump of coal — the remaining hunk of space debris might touch down on the ground or the ocean. More than 22,000 of these objects have been collected from the desert floor in Antarctica.    Rocky asteroids that drift up to the 100-foot (30-meter) diameter class usually aren't a major problem, which is fortunate. Current thinking is that Earth encounters an asteroid of this size at least every five years, possibly as often as a year. On the flip side, an asteroid of this size or even smaller need not actually set foot on the planet to leave an awfully big footprint.    If the asteroid happens to be stony and several stories tall, instead of making landfall, it might break up in the atmosphere. The ensuing explosion can generate an abrupt change in air pressure, temperature and speed known more generally as a shockwave. The shockwave generated by the midair break-up of a stony 50-60 foot (17-20 meter) asteroid may have taken place outside of Chelyabinsk, Russia in 2013. The area under the shockwave was flattened by a multi-megaton energy blast moving faster than the speed of sound that injured more than a thousand people.    If an asteroid hits Earth, or even just comes close, a recent study projects that shockwaves and wind are the most concerning hazards to human life, followed by heat and tsunamis. When the asteroid is bigger than 150 meters wide, as it was during the Tunguska event in 1908, the shockwaves can have as much force as a major volcanic explosion and can be felt on the other side of the world. Asteroids on the scale of the one that ended the Mesozoic Era — roughly the size of Manhattan — are exceedingly rare but can create enormous craters and kick up enough dust to change the planet's climate.    Target Unlocked    We've learned a lot from the levels of destruction in Chelyabinsk, Tunguska and at the end of the Mesozoic Era. According to projections, an asteroid the size of a skyscraper could destroy modern cities or even small countries. On the plus side, according to the latest sky surveys, no known 140-meter asteroids will be headed our way for at least 100 years. However, that is only no known asteroids. Computer models of the population of 140-meter asteroids indicate that we've only discovered a fraction of such asteroids to date. As many as 60% of the 25,000 objects in that size range have yet to be pinpointed.    That's not for lack of trying on the part of the asteroid-hunting community. They're looking with some of the best tools on the planet — and off of it. In orbit, the NEOWISE mission has been scanning the entire sky in the infrared, looking for anything with a heat signature. Meanwhile, two missions on Earth are responsible for 90% of the Near Earth Objects discovered recently, including asteroids, comets and interplanetary dust. The first is the Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System (PanSTARRS) on Haleakala, Hawaii and the second is the Catalina Sky Survey on Mt. Lemmon, Arizona. Further asteroid tracking missions have been planned for 2022, with the goal of identifying up to 85% of 140-meter-diameter Earth-crossing asteroids.    Even with the best telescopic eyes and the brightest scientific minds on the problem, a cool, dark object moving in the chilly near-void of space isn't an easy thing to find. With the current known asteroid count at more than 1.1 million, and millions more are unaccounted for, rather than waiting to be caught off-guard, the planetary defense community is researching what it would take to move a literal space mountain should one head our way.    Aiming for a Bullseye    NASA's recently launched Double Asteroid Redirection Mission (DART) is headed for a binary asteroid system 11 million kilometers away from Earth. One asteroid in the system is 160 meters across. It orbits around a much larger 780-meter asteroid. These two objects are known collectively as the Didymos binary. The mission plan involves using the DART spacecraft as a kinetic impactor on the smaller of the two asteroids.    The aim of playing a cosmic game of darts with a binary asteroid system is to put one more quiver in the arrow of planetary defense. Hurling a spacecraft into a 160-meter wide space rock will allow us to measure how much such an impact changes the orbit of this kind of asteroid: the kind, it so happens, we're most concerned about. If we can deflect a Near Earth Object releasing the energy equivalent of 185 Hiroshima-sized nuclear bombs with one small, well-aimed punch moving at 15,000 mph (24,140 kph), we're that much closer to a functional planetary defense system. And that much further away from questions we only want answered in computer simulations, physics homework assignments and science fiction.    Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.          

A Game of Cosmic DARTs: Planetary Defense Against Asteroids

A DDoS attack — which stands for "distributed denial of service" — is a type of cyberattack that hijacks innocent users' computers in order to attack a website and render it temporarily inaccessible or inoperable.  In such an attack, the targeted website is flooded with fake user requests, so many of them that they cannot handle the traffic. The site may be knocked offline entirely by the overflow traffic, or its response to legitimate requests may simply slow to such a crawl that the website becomes unusable by its intended users.  And because DDoS attacks operate by hijacking innocent machines, they are exceptionally difficult for security experts to trace back to their originator, meaning that the targeted website usually cannot determine the attacker's identity.  Botnets on the March  But the most distinctive feature of DDoS attacks is that they victimize not only the targeted website (and its users, who suffer the actual denial of service) but also the owners of other computers and internet devices — up to hundreds of thousands of them — whose machines are taken over in order to send the fake requests that cripple the targeted website.  Not all denial of service attacks are "distributed"; such attacks can also be launched using a single machine to send the fake service requests. But as Kim Zetter notes at Wired, such single-origin attacks have been largely supplanted by DDoS attacks.  The computers hijacked for a DDoS attack are "recruited" by being infected with a computer virus that places the infected computer under control of the attacker. A computer thus infected is called a bot (short for robot) or zombie. A network of bots used in an attack is a botnet.  The owners and users of these infected computers are generally unaware that their computers are infected, or being used in an attack. They may notice sluggish performance when their computer is being used in a botnet, but without knowing the cause.  While the computers used in a botnet are infected, the website targeted by a DDoS attack is not itself directly infected by the attack, and its data is not being stolen — it is simply flooded with spurious service calls. However, the disruption caused by DDoS may also be used to attempt other attacks on the targeted website.  Motives for DDoS attacks can vary from straightforward money extortion ("pay up, or we'll keep knocking you offline") to political motivations. The latter involve both so-called hacktivists and state intelligence agencies. One of the most notable DDoS attacks to date was launched in 2007 against Estonian websites by actors associated with Russia.   DDOS Hits Warp Speed  More recently a new type of DDOS attack has come to the fore. ZDNet reports that attackers have learned how to hack into servers running a software application called Memcached, which is designed to speed up web page loading. Servers running Memcached should never be exposed the public Internet — but many website operators fail to provide this protection, allowing DDOS attackers to hijack the servers and put Memcached to work for them.  In 2018, reports Wired, the developer website GitHub was subjected to the most massive DDOS attack yet recorded, when request traffic suddenly jumped to 1.7 terabits per second — roughly comparable to a million users all trying to access the same website at the same time.  The good news is that GitHub recovered within minutes. But most websites are not as well-prepared to handle such an attack.    Enable targeting cookies to view this content.  Enter the Internet of Things  In and of themselves, DDoS attacks are not the most damaging form of cyberattack, since the target website is only temporarily disabled, and — unless another type of attack is also involved — its data is not compromised. The machines used in the botnet are compromised, but the attackers are often interested only in using the bots to send fake service requests, not stealing data from them.  But as Margaret Rouse reports at SearchSecurity, the emergence of the Internet of Things (IoT) is raising the stakes for DDoS attacks. The things in the Internet of Things are internet-connected gadgets of all sorts, from exercisers' activity tracking wristbands to industrial controllers. Few of these IoT devices have been designed for security — meaning that they are all too vulnerable to hackers who want to take them over and use them in DDoS attack botnets.  The challenge of protecting IoT devices against being hijacked by DDoS attackers underlines just one facet of a transformation now overtaking the computing and technology world.  Because of the Internet of Things, "tech" in the sense of computers and information technology is no longer separate from the broader domain of technology. Every sophisticated machine is now likely to also be an internet device, with all the implications for security as well as capabilities.  At Northrop Grumman, you can work with some of the world's most sophisticated connected devices, up to and including automated technology. And security in all its forms is the heart of the business. 

Service Denied! The DDoS Attack Threat

Biomimicry, the design and production of solutions modeled after nature, has resulted in many inventions that are helping solve human challenges. From Kingfisher birds inspiring the nose cap design of Shinkansen bullet trains to an optoelectronic camouflage system mimicking the skins of cephalopods, nature-based technologies allow humans to develop solutions that once seemed impossible. In recent years, engineers have developed recoverable or expendable autonomous systems that can imitate animal swarming to search unknown territories and perform complex tasks. These robotic platforms — drone swarms — can organize themselves into different flight patterns or spread out and work individually to complete a mission. Companies across multiple industries have found practical uses for swarming technology to help solve problems in challenging environments. Urban Combat Operations  Current mission operations in urban settings rely on dismounted soldiers who have limited situational awareness of their surroundings. City landscapes pose many disadvantages that can leave warfighters vulnerable and prevent them from being readily available when needed. Soldiers must have the ability to look around corners and see through doors to see if any threats, like insurgents, are lurking in a surprise trap. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) OFFensive Swarm-Enabled Tactics (OFFSET) program aims to improve small-unit urban combat operations through enhanced manned-unmanned teaming with over 250 small air and ground vehicles. OFFSET utilizes low-cost air and ground vehicles that can operate as a heterogeneous swarm to achieve diverse mission objectives. In the future, these swarming platforms will offer more eyes and ears on the battlefield to detect and combat threats. "Swarm technology enables warfighters to solve problems in complex environments more efficiently and creatively," said Erin Cherry, program manager in Emerging Capabilities Development at Northrop Grumman, a Swarm Systems Integrator for OFFSET. "Attritable, unmanned platforms collaborate as a swarm to help warfighters asymmetrically gain an understanding of a situation, make decisions, and take actions." OFFSET swarming technology is built on top of Robot Operating System. The vehicles used for swarming are the Uvify IFO-S air vehicles and the Aion R1 ground vehicles. Each vehicle has sensors and algorithms for behaviors like coordination, collision avoidance, and path planning. Intra-agent communication between platforms is enabled with a mesh network. OFFSET incorporates artificial intelligence and cooperative autonomy in a variety of ways from object recognition and classification to multi-agent swarm tactics. A human operator defines a high level plan with an advanced sketch-based user interface and then the swarm coordinates their actions to efficiently perform the mission. Space Exploration  Researchers at California State University Northridge are turning to much smaller, insect-like drone swarms for extraterrestrial applications. Essentially, these robots will be dropped into unexplored space territories to autonomously complete tasks they're given. The platforms will be able to problem solve in austere environments and adjust to challenges, like reorganizing their formations to accommodate the loss of any individual systems. These rover swarms are an alternative to larger space exploration programs. Their built-in redundancy allows for more opportunity to complete the mission, whereas if a larger rover encountered a fatal error, the mission would end in failure. The swarms can also self-assemble into smaller groups to survey more ground and accomplish multiple tasks, which would take a single rover significantly more time to perform. Expendable insect-like swarming systems will give researchers a better method to collect planetary data that could explain the many mysteries of the universe. Disaster Relief  As recent wildfires wreaked havoc across the globe, emergency responders are turning to swarming technology to help extinguish rampant fires and for search and rescue operations. Drone swarms use artificial intelligence and machine learning to map the spread of the fire with points of interest that need immediate attention. These systems will provide emergency responders with a situational awareness they have lacked due to hostile conditions of the environment. The autonomous vehicles can deliver real-time imagery to emergency responders that will equip them with the most accurate information. Swarms are able to maneuver through tight areas that reconnaissance helicopters cannot fit through and can fly low enough to capture accurate footage. These images can help identify potential openings for fire fighters who need to be on the ground fighting off flames. Some drone swarms are also equipped with thermal imaging cameras that can detect the location of stranded individuals through heavy smoke. Northrop Grumman and Carnegie Mellon University have recently partnered to sponsor five artificial intelligence research projects that seek to address different aspects of natural disaster response. The projects aim to improve small unmanned aerial vehicle rescue capabilities and human-machine communications. The initiative — titled Strategic, Operational and Tactical Emergency Recovery through Innovations in AI (SOTERIA) — supports the Department of Defense's push for better humanitarian aid and disaster relief technologies. Swarming technology allows emergency responders to better survey life-threatening areas at a further distance and respond quicker to the wildfire. These robotic platforms could potentially minimize the damage of natural disasters and reduce the cost of the overall rescue operation. The potential these drone swarms provide will change how we approach disaster relief, space exploration, and urban operations. With this technology, humans will be able to survey unknown territories and problem solve in a much more strategic way through advanced manned-unmanned teaming. Interested in working on the forefront of emerging capabilities? See how you can fit at Northrop Grumman.

Swarming Behavior: Drone Swarms to Survey Unknown Environments

Increasingly, operators of vehicle fleets such as shared electric scooters, delivery trucks and school buses are turning to a technology called geofencing to ensure safe, efficient and appropriate use of their vehicles. The shrinking cost of the technology is also enabling smaller vehicles and professional assets to be tracked and managed cost-effectively.What Is Geofencing?According to Dev Bhatia, chief marketing officer for Momentum IoT, a geofence is a virtual border drawn around a location or area on a map. The perimeter of that border is set and managed typically by a fleet manager, using either a handheld or desktop computer application."To set up a geofence platform," he explains, "you need three things: a small 'edge' device that can establish the GPS location of an asset, a connection from that device to a cloud server, and a connection from the server to an application on a smartphone or desktop computer."Geofencing devices, which are attached to a vehicle or other asset for tracking, are usually about the size of a cellphone and enabled by a GPS chipset, adds Bhatia. They can be plugged into the power system of a vehicle or use small, portable batteries. The devices are usually leased to fleet operators for a few dollars per month, per vehicle.Thinking Outside the FenceThe benefits of geofencing are as varied as its applications. The edge devices are often paired with accelerometers, for example, to allow fleet managers to know not only where their vehicles are, but also when they stop and start moving.Operators of school bus fleets, for example, can use geofencing to ensure that bus drivers are not exceeding designated speed limits, leaving their designated routes or lingering too long in any one location, all of which can add expense and liability to a school district ledger. Geofencing can also help fleet managers monitor and verify the driving behavior of their bus operators should it ever be questioned by the local community.According to Bhatia, geofencing can also help fleet operators of utility trucks or plumbing trucks optimize their routing, which can enhance both operational efficiency and cash flow for the business."An operator of service trucks can drop a location pin at each job site, then create a geofence around each pin," he explains. "With a geofencing app, the fleet manager can then monitor when vehicles enter and exit those service locations and make real-time decisions about which truck is closest and most available to go to the next job site."Ensuring Safe, Responsible RidingMicromobility startup Superpedestrian uses geofencing to monitor the behavior of its LINK e-scooter riders.According to Lou Alejo, a company software engineer, Superpedestrian has recently introduced a new application called Pedestrian Defense that monitors both the speed and location of its scooter fleet at all times. This data helps ensure the safety of LINK riders and compliance with local city ordinances."Pedestrian Defense uses a combination of GPS data, scooter sensor data and machine learning to determine a scooter's location with pinpoint accuracy," says Alejo. "It then maps that data against rules for geofenced areas to ensure riders follow the local rules at all times."In cities where sidewalk riding of e-scooters is not allowed, for example, the app brings the LINK scooter to a full stop within seconds of a rider trying to ride it on the sidewalk. It also detects and prevents wrong-way riding and aggressive swerving. And at the end of a ride, it enforces safe parking of the scooter.Taking Care of BusinessAs the cost of producing and leasing geofencing technology has come down, observes Bhatia, so too has the size of objects and assets that can now be tracked with geofencing technology.His company offers a beacon-like device called a Toolie that can be attached to individual tools. A geofence set up around a GPS-enabled device on the truck carrying these tools can help a construction manager know, for example, if tools are no longer within the geofence and that they may have been left behind."Geofencing coupled with Toolies can definitely help fleet managers keep track of smaller, less expensive assets without the need for lots of real-time phone calls between the manager and his workers," observes Bhatia.Increasingly, he adds, geofences are also used to provide security for construction assets or other equipment assigned to a fixed location for a fixed period of time."We can set a geofence around an asset such as a light tower or a porta potty," Bhatia suggests. "If that equipment moves outside the geofence we have to assume either it's been stolen or an unauthorized person is messing with our equipment. This technology can definitely help manage costs for 'fleets' of stationary and mobile equipment alike."Adding Automation and FlexibilityGeofencing technology is also becoming more automated and hence better able to support dynamic urban requirements, notes Alejo."It used to be that geofences were either on all the time or off all the time for a given geographic location," he says. "We could change their status and the requirements for that zone, but that required a lot of manual technician time."Scheduled geofencing, which Alejo helped develop at Superpedestrian, changed all that.Now, he continues, a city can set up dynamic geofences around areas such as major league ballparks or schools. With scheduled geofencing, scooter riding might be allowed during non-school hours or on weekends, or in a city during the baseball offseason. Scheduling information loaded on the scooter, however, would enforce lower speed limits during school hours, or prevent any riding at all at times before, during and after games when pedestrian baseball fans might be entering or leaving a stadium."Scheduled geofencing definitely helps ensure safety for riders and pedestrians alike, and it helps cities feel like they've got greater control over the flow of traffic within their boundaries," says Alejo.Geofencing scheduling information is uploaded to LINK scooters on a regular or as-needed basis, he adds.Tracking What's NextIn Bhatia's estimation, geofencing technology will continue to get smaller, cheaper and more capable. And as that happens, the size and value of assets tracked and managed by geofences will also continue to shrink."People traditionally have associated geofencing technology with long-haul trucks, but as the costs and size of the technology shrink, we're just as likely to use it to manage fleets of golf carts or jackhammers," he suggests.So what is geofencing going to look like in the future? If the history of technology is any indicator, Bhatia says, humans will continue to come up with new and more innovative ways to apply geofencing technology."We're nowhere near the endpoint of use cases for geofencing technology in terms of size, cost or capability," he claims. "I can't wait to see what's next."Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Geofencing Technology Unleashes the Imagination of Fleet Operators

You don't need an engine to fly. A balloon can carry you aloft with no means of propulsion, while sailplanes can stay in the air by exploiting rising air currents. You don't even need an engine to travel in space once you're in orbit. The moon needs no propulsion system to keep orbiting Earth.
But practical air and space travel require some controlled means of getting where you want to go, and that's where a propulsion system comes in. The technologies that provide this capability are commonly grouped together as "aerospace propulsion," because they all rely on Sir Isaac Newton's principle of action and reaction.
Action and Reaction
This principle states that, if you exert a force in one direction — for example, by throwing a heavy weight in a certain direction — that same action will produce a force in the opposite direction. This is most dramatically visible during a rocket launch. The rocket engine directs a powerful blast of hot gas downward, pushing the rocket vehicle upward.
A jet engine works on the same principle, though the jet exhaust is usually not so dramatically visible. An important but subtle difference is where the hot exhaust gas comes from.
A rocket produces its exhaust entirely from the propellant it carries onboard. The good news for rocket propulsion is that this means it works perfectly well in the vacuum of space. It carries the stuff it pushes against. The bad news is all that propellant is penalty weight it needs to carry up with it until expended as reaction mass.
Air-Breathing Propulsion
In contrast to a rocket, a jet engine grabs most of its reaction mass from the air it is flying through. The jet still needs fuel to heat the air passing through the engine, giving it the extra oomph that produces thrust, but the fuel requirement is much less than the total reaction mass. This means the jet aircraft needs to carry a much smaller load with it to power the engine.
Where do airplane propellers fit into this? They work on the same principle as a jet, but instead of heating the passing air to produce thrust, the spinning propeller produces aerodynamic lift by grabbing passing air and hurtling it backward. This reaction drives the propeller — and the plane it's attached to — forward.
Most modern jet engines combine these techniques. A jet engine uses ducted fans that grab air and throw it back but only pass a fraction of it through the combustion chamber, where fuel is then burned to power the whole thing.
The Newtonian principle of aerospace propulsion, in its self-contained rocket and air-breathing jet variations, has been sufficient to make air travel commonplace and open the door to space. But the climb from Earth to orbit is so demanding, and the needed rocket propellant adds such enormous penalty weight, that getting into space by rocket remains a terribly expensive proposition.
Too Hot to Handle?
From the dawn of the space age, people have wondered if the air-breathing principle could be adapted to space lift. A jet engine won't work in space, but in principle, a jet flying in the upper atmosphere could approach orbital speed and only need rocket propulsion for the final insertion into orbit.
The problem is heat. Atmospheric flight at very high speed produces enormous frictional heating, and jet engines must produce even more heat to generate thrust. Conventional turbine jet engines are limited to roughly three times the speed of sound, or Mach 3. Ramjet engines, which have no moving parts but need to be boosted up to high speed before they work at all, could reach about Mach 6 before they, too, overheat.
Decades ago, engineers came up with a possible solution called the supersonic combustion ramjet, or scramjet. ("Supersonic" here refers not to the speed of the aircraft but to the speed of airflow through the engine.) If air could flow through a ramjet without having to slow down to give time for the fuel to burn, frictional heating inside the engine would not be so enormous.
The science is clear, but the engineering has been incredibly demanding. According to the University of Notre Dame, "the internal aerodynamics of a scramjet engine are extremely complicated and not well understood." Aviation Week Network gives a different expression of the same challenge: "A drop of kerosene sprayed into the combustion chamber of a scramjet engine has a lot of work to do in 1/1,000th of a second."
Progress at Mach Speed
On top of these engineering challenges, the only real way to test a scramjet engine is to launch it into the upper atmosphere at hypersonic speed — upward of Mach 5, or about a mile per second. Thus, it's taken decades to develop scramjets from experimental testbed to a practical working technology.
But, at last, those years of work are paying off. The first practical hypersonic scramjet aerospace craft will be for defense — in particular, for engaging hypersonic glide vehicles boosted by rockets (the only currently operational form of hypersonic propulsion). Several countries have already deployed these as weapons intended to evade antimissile defenses.
In 2021, reports Design and Development Today, a Northrop Grumman scramjet engine powered the successful first flight of the Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept. According to Military & Aerospace Electronics, this program is now developing a Hypersonic Attack Cruise Missile, "a scramjet-powered hypersonic weapon designed to hold high-value targets at risk in contested environments from standoff distances."
This initial defense application is a long way from hypersonic aerospace liners crossing the Pacific in two hours, much less flying to orbit. But air-breathing hypersonic propulsion has arrived, and revolutions in traveling through air and exploring space are likely to follow.
Learn more about our people and life at Northrop Grumman, or check out our career opportunities to see how you can be a part of defining possible.
 

Breaking Down the Science Behind Aerospace Propulsion

 The military has used electro-optical and infrared (EO/IR) sensors for decades to track stationary and moving targets. Now, these sensor technologies are being combined with artificial intelligence for a variety of military and commercial applications. Using artificial intelligence to handle visual processing allows these systems to do a better and faster job of image recognition.Cutting-edge AI Here are some cutting-edge examples of how AI is being used for visual processing: At Stockholm's Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, researchers have combined artificial intelligence with image processing to create technology that can determine the best radiotherapy treatment plan for an individual patient, according to DOTmed News. At Stanford, computer scientists have combined deep learning, a form of AI, and visual processing to create an algorithm that could diagnose skin cancers as accurately as board-certified dermatologists could. They hope to create an app that would provide people who can't travel with remote diagnoses. Neurala, a startup with the tagline "brains for bots," has already used AI to process images from low-end cameras to help a Mars rover explore the red planet, according to IEEE Spectrum. Now it wants to bring that same technology to home robots, toys and self-driving cars. EditEdit Military applications have expanded beyond acquiring and tracking weapons targets, according to Military & Aerospace Electronics. Naval experts, for example, are looking to EO/IR sensors to provide situational awareness. Different assets in the field can transmit what they're seeing to a central command; then, that consolidated view can be broadcast back out to the field. The U.S. Navy currently has an experimental Situational Awareness System that uses two EO/IR sensors placed at the front and back of an aircraft carrier's deck, as well as video cameras and a laptop-based controller. In the same vein, Northrop Grumman's LITENING G4 combines sensors, laser imaging and advanced image processing to provide combat ID, range recognition and situational awareness. Smarter Vision In these examples and in general, artificial intelligence is necessary to make sense of multiple inputs and/or lower-resolution images. While the optics and sensors used in these implementations are impressive, it's the software that makes sense of all the incoming data. Many multisensor systems rely on a process called sensor fusion to gain a complete view of the surroundings, and that situational awareness is crucial for military operations. As All About Circuits explains, many sensing technologies besides EO/IR can help create an accurate view of surroundings. LiDAR, radar, sonar, GPS and physical sensors such as accelerometers can fill in for each other. For example, cameras don't work well in low-light or bad-weather conditions, while LiDAR emits its own light. LiDAR, however, is expensive, so developers of autonomous vehicles use both, along with an array of other devices.Sensor Fusion Fusing all these inputs together is no simple feat. For one thing, different sensors may provide conflicting data, while occasionally a sensor may fail. So a sensor fusion system must have enough intelligence to determine which inputs to trust in a split second. Unguided equipment, such as autonomous cars or unmanned aircraft systems such as the RQ-4 Global Hawk, must be able to avoid obstacles and respond almost instantly to changing conditions. For example, the automated driving solution from Delphi and Mobileye combines cameras, real-time mapping, radars and LiDAR, according to Auto Connected Car News. However, instead of using a database of driving rules for guidance, the system employs artificial intelligence that actually can learn to drive better with experience. Computer-vision systems that combine multiple sensors with a layer of intelligence mimic the way the human body takes in information from the sensory organs and processes it in the brain. Will these systems ever be as good as the human body and brain? In 2015, software beat humans in an image classification test, according to the Computer Vision Foundation. And Tech Times says Google's self-driving cars are safer than human-piloted cars. In other words, they're already better.

Image Processing Gets a Boost with Sensor Tech and AI

The first Drone Racing League (DRL) series was announced by ESPN last fall. Complete with crashes and tricked-out courses, the competitions are built to entertain fans. The events combine cutting-edge aerial vehicle technology with Hollywood-quality courses to deliver races packed with speed ... and crashes.Viewers are taken along for a ride thanks to onboard cameras that provide first-person views (FPV) that allow pilots the freedom to push the limits of the devices.FPV is unique in that it provides a viewpoint that is otherwise unachievable. Racing drones can perform maneuvers that would render a human pilot unconscious and, thanks to their size, they are able to operate in places where manned vehicles simply cannot.A Sporty ApproachAutonomous aerial systems have been around for a few decades but the launch of competitions is bound to drive further innovation. Sport and competition is what has driven vehicle innovation for more than a century, since the first automobile races of the late 1800s.The DRL series is driven by strict regulations and requirements. This is not unlike the design specifications adhered to by aerospace companies. Each has unique operating environments and vehicles are packed with carbon-fiber bodies, efficient motor control systems and low-latency, high-precision control mechanisms.The agility and precision control software it takes to get a drone through a series of checkpoints is an accessible display of technology. Measuring about 10 inches across and weighing in just under a pound, an official DRL vehicle can reach speeds of up to 120 mph.Speed and Agility RequiredThe vehicles you see on ESPN are designed for, as the DRL puts it, "speed, agility, and durability." Airing drone racing makes it accessible to the masses but aerospace companies have been doing that for years, and they take durability and range seriously.Take the U.S. Navy's MQ-8C Fire Scout. The Northrop Grumman-designed Fire Scout is nearly 50 times larger (41.4 feet) and 6,000 times heavier than its model counterpart, but is also able to carry a 500-pound payload and hit top speeds of more than 150 mph.Northrop Grumman also took on a monumental challenge of engineering, precision and control while becoming the first to land and launch an autonomous aerial system from an aircraft carrier, with the U.S. Navy's X-47B UCAS-D in 2013.In 2016, DARPA announced Northrop Grumman as the winner of a nearly $100-million contract to develop a new form of autonomous aerial system. Most of that development is still top secret, but it'll make drone racing devices look like the toys that they are.Seeing Is BelievingWe may not all be fighter pilots, but getting a ride in the cockpit is still the best way to experience what is happening in the industry. Enthusiasts in the San Diego area, a hotbed of aviation activity, were treated to a fierce, team-based competition of autonomous aerial systems working in concert at the Northrop Grumman-hosted Quad Cup in August.Everyone who wants to see autonomous aerial systems continue development should be pushing to have more people experience that thrill. One of the leading makers of FPV drones, Lumenier, is quoted as saying their main marketing channel is to sponsor pilots in drone racing events.The FAA does not regularly release data on how many operators there are out there, but as of May 2016, there were reports of more than 500,000 registered drones in the United States. Add in the recent holiday season and that number will soon approach a million.What's next for drone racing? As the commercial and military markets leap forward with innovation, the push towards truly trusted cognitive autonomy may result in flying robots that make their own decisions, untethered by the limits of the joystick.

A Sporty Approach to Drone Racing

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, jobs for programmers are forecast to grow "much faster than average" over the next 10 years — which makes sense. As digital transformation becomes a top priority across industries — in many cases, to meet growing consumer demand driven by the ubiquity and ease of mobile-first experiences — there's a commensurate need for skilled coders capable of translating market strategy into usable software. But where are these application experts and software savants most in-demand? Where are they pushing the boundaries of digital delivery, and what's on the horizon for creative computation? A Brief History of Binary Building Computers and humans process information differently. Where our biology includes multiple sensory organs that help us function in the physical world, computers rely on binary — "on" or "off" states represented by ones and zeros — to navigate digital directives. Programming languages were created to bridge the gap; these frameworks translate human-created commands into something computers can understand and implement. One of the first languages created was Fortran, developed by John W. Backus in 1957. Fortran made it possible to connect computer output with simple input, in turn bypassing the need for more complicated and laborious programming processes, as IBM notes. As a result, it became the first widely adopted language, and it still sees use today. More familiar frameworks quickly followed — C made its appearance in 1972, Python in 1991, Ruby and Java in 1995, and C# in 2000, according to ComputerScience.org. While coding newcomers such as Go and R have also made significant inroads, C, Python and Java remain the top three languages in 2021, per InfoWorld. Although each approach differs in syntax, they share the substantive purpose of translating human input into digital output. The Kids Are Alright As technology has become a ubiquitous part of daily life, much has been made of the need to teach children coding techniques to prepare them for future success. Increasingly, schools are offering STEM-based in-school or after-school programs. This push toward programming posits a world where kids who don't learn to code will be left behind as they enter evolving job markets. However, recent pushback suggests that this focus on digital literacy may not be as beneficial as first believed — and it may in fact be doing more harm than good. The bigger problem here? Binary thinking. When it comes to learning code, it isn't an either/or operation. Instead, it's about teaching kids to problem solve in both physical and digital worlds. In practice, this means a healthy balance between on-screen interactions — whether this takes the form of educational gaming or more in-depth coding courses — and hands-on challenges that see kids thinking outside the box. Put simply? While coding classwork helps to better prepare kids for the realities of a digital-first future, this isn't an all-or-nothing scenario. Children with only a passing interest in programming will gain basic benefits, while those with a natural affinity will seek out more specialized software development jobs and opportunities. Programmable Potential So, what's out there for those with a programming predilection? Mobile application development remains a reliable source of software development jobs. Companies across all industries and markets are looking to create cross-platform, user-friendly apps capable of both providing on-demand access to key services and collecting relevant data. But there are also new paths emerging that offer new opportunities for programming experts. Industry Wired offers some examples, including how expanding use of coding in agriculture underpins the development of "farming as a service." A combination of tools and technologies could make it possible for farmers to leverage historical and real-time data combined with autonomous processes to improve crop yields and limit overall risk. There's also expanding opportunity for coding in military applications, such as the development of artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms capable of creating unexpected and "unfair" strategies in military simulations to help develop more responsive defense tactics. "One of the significant challenges in the aerospace and defense industry is the integration of advanced capabilities into modern weapon systems to address emergent and future cyber threats," said Dr. Francis Afinidad, an NG Fellow in cybersecurity at Northrop Grumman. "There is an immediate need for software engineers able to develop solutions driven by artificial intelligence (AI) and advanced machine learning (ML) to intelligently protect against active threats in a cyber-contested environment." Other areas on the forefront of coding include expanding markets, such as e-sports. This increasingly popular (and lucrative) pastime requires software-driven virtual reality and augmented reality platforms to help bring more players and fans into the game. An unexpected opportunity comes in the form of kitchen appliance coding. With smart fridges that include cameras and code to identify current foodstuffs and suggest potential recipes, or intelligent stovetops capable of achieving exact temperature settings or instantly cooling to prevent potential burns, there's no shortage of programmable potential for interested parties. Quantifiable Impact Beyond current market initiatives, there's also opportunity for cutting-edge coding in quantum computing applications. While recent advancements in quantum computing have produced reliable and repeatable results that underpin new computing frameworks, a recent IEEE Spectrum article notes that "quantum computing arguably isn't quite full-fledged computing till there's quantum software as well as hardware." New languages in development — such as Jaqal — look to make the best use of quantum qubit potential, but as the quantum market expands, there's a host of opportunity for programmers to develop their own super positional software solutions. Bottom line? Jobs for programmers are expanding beyond traditional software and mobile application development into areas such as agriculture, AI and even kitchen appliance coding. And there's more where that came from — the advent of true quantum computers showcases the need for an entirely new class of languages capable of harnessing qubit computing power at scale. Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Jobs for Programmers: Cracking the Career Code

Modern warfare calls for high-tech equipment. Even a reliable, classic defense tool — radar — has room for improvement. Therefore, Northrop Grumman is replacing legacy equipment with updated radar to detect objects with greater accuracy without sacrificing mobility. Current radar technology enables machines to track multiple types of rocket, artillery and mortar rounds simultaneously. Radar systems are becoming increasingly digital, so in the future we could start to see the merging of radar, electronic warfare, communications and other functions. While older radar systems were mechanically scanned, the latest systems are defined by software. With active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar technology, a beam of radio waves can be electronically steered to point in different directions without physically repositioning the antenna. This has the effect of giving an operating machine excellent peripheral vision, because while the equipment faces one direction, AESA radar can also focus separate beams on other areas.  Enable targeting cookies to view this content.  Ground/Air Task Oriented Radar (G/ATOR) The newest radar systems are also more jam-proof and harder to detect. AESA radar was developed from modern airborne radar designs, but it is now being used to equip versatile ground machines. Northrop Grumman's Ground/Air Task Oriented Radar (G/ATOR) system is a single radar that can replace a handful of other legacy radars. While ground and air defense missions previously required separate radars, G/ATOR does both. Having one radar system for multiple missions reduces operation and maintenance costs. It was developed to protect Marine expeditionary forces, but in the future, it may also be useful for the Army for ground missions and Air Force for air missions. G/ATOR detects and tracks targets such as rockets, artillery, mortars, cruise missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The antenna array rotates to provide 360-degree coverage, and the entire system can be set up in less than an hour. For maximum mobility, the antenna and its drive system are mounted on a trailer. A lightweight cooling system uses forced circulation from fans blowing ambient air through the array. The trailer is pulled by a truck which has a mounted generator to provide power to the radar system. A Humvee with a shelter provides the ability to communicate via radios. Although G/ATOR is powerful, it breaks down into lightweight components so it is more mobile than traditional radar and can be transported via helicopter or cargo aircraft. Highly Adaptable Multi-Mission Radar (HAMMR)   Highly Adaptable Multi-Mission Radar (HAMMR) is a high performance radar system that provides full capability on the move. Like G/ATOR, it takes the AESA technology from airborne fighter radars and repurposes it for ground missions. This system can track multiple targets (rockets, artillery, mortars, aircraft and small UAS) traveling in a variety of paths and trajectories. Unlike existing systems, HAMMR is designed as a secure software defined, hardware enabled, mission system so it is modular and scalable. It can rapidly be reconfigured in the field with software upgrades to address new threats. It can counter cruise missiles. The radar spins to provide 360-degree coverage, and it has a small footprint. It's mountable on a vehicle so the operators are protected even when they are on the move. Tracking targets while moving greatly improves the system's survivability.   Digital Radar   Engineers at Northrop Grumman are developing systems that use digitally beamed radar. The company's chief engineer and system architect on the radar team said, "We have just begun to scratch the surface with digital radar." The chief went onto explain, "These are just coming to market now, and we have started to explore the capabilities that we could potentially bring to the warfighter. With digital, we have so much more power and flexibility available to us [than analog radars]. There is a huge capability improvement that is available that we're going bring to fruition in the next ten to 20 years." The biggest challenge that remains is figuring out how to handle the data that digital radar collects. Research is still needed regarding signal processing, data processing and data dissemination. There is an opportunity for a single piece of hardware to serve several different functions at once. Figuring out exactly how this will be done is a multidisciplinary effort that requires electrical engineers, software engineers, systems engineers, mechanical engineers and even more. While the basic principles of radar remain the same as always, the technology at the core of radar systems has changed. Thanks to decades of research and work by electrical, mechanical and software engineers — including at Northrop Grumman, where you can actively take part — radar systems are now more versatile and modular, while still remaining accurate. 

Radar Systems Get a High-Tech Upgrade

 What's the value of adaptive artificial intelligence (AI)? That's the idea behind Battlecode — MIT's long-running code competition which pits teams of AI-controlled units against each other on a virtual battlefield. Each year, developers tweak the rules to improve balance or introduce new elements but the premise remains the same: design AI that can outthink and outmaneuver the opponent to win big. But what's the big-picture impact of this bot-based battle?Battlecode Basics The MIT competition got off the ground 17 years ago. The concept is simple: Players write code for teams of virtual robots, designing AI which allows units to coordinate attacks, develop defenses and ultimately own the battlefield. In addition to the once-a-year competition, Battlecode is also an MIT course (number 6.147) which offers a walk-through for beginners and a newbie-only tournament. Advanced competitors (in teams of one to four) compete throughout January and February in Sprint, Seeding and Qualifying tournaments for the chance to play live on stage during the finals and share more than $50,000 in prize money.Evolving Iteration At its most basic, the competition has teams creating AI code which tells units how to act under specific circumstances and respond to emerging threats. Historically, all units were able to "speak" freely to one another and share "sight" of the map at large. But in recent years developers have limited this ability, changing the rules so that only specific units can send out messages — the more complex the message, the more time it takes to send — and units can only see their immediate environment. Recent iterations of the competition also saw the introduction of a "third" faction: zombies. These units attack anything that comes into range, and if AI-controlled troops are killed, they respawn as zombies. This change prompted the development of a new strategy. Team Foundation, which placed fourth in 2016, used low-health, high-speed scouts that pulled zombies to the enemy base and then died, causing mass chaos for opponents.Advanced Tactics So why Battlecode? With so many other coding competitions now available for tech students looking to hone their skills — such as CyperPatriot or Google's Code Jam — what's the appeal? As noted by one former winner, Cory Li, the "experiences and skills learned through Battlecode are hugely relevant in software engineering, startups and life in general." And according to GCN, these "war games" can also help improve decision-making abilities of agency managers, financial analysts and cybersecurity staff. Consider the new strategy designed by Foundation. According to "that one blog," a postmortem account of the 2016 competition from first-place team Future Perfect, the dominant tactic in a zombie-infested landscape was "turtling" — using turret-based defenses to hold off enemy attackers. Other competitors designed mobile-turret strategies but Foundation's "very scary" zombie-based attack quickly overwhelmed even top-seeded teams in record time. Team 1064CBread, meanwhile, discovered that it was possible to leverage the game's messaging feature to win battles. Here's how: Since robots could receive messages from both enemies and allies, 1064CBread built an army dedicated to spamming the virtual airwaves. Enemy units with their receivers turned on were effectively jammed turn after turn, making them easy prey for zombies, while 1064CBread's bots ignored the messages and survived the assault. Eventually, developers were forced to patch the strategy by reducing the number of messages units could send each turn. Bottom line? While Battlecode's bot brilliance doesn't yet directly inform real-world applications, it serves a critical purpose: empowering the next generation of coders to think outside the box and create never-before-seen strategies. From enterprise efforts to military applications, taking a pass on predictability is critical in obtaining a competitive edge and increasing ROI, or outmaneuvering opponents to minimize losses and reduce total resource commitment.

Battlecode: Banking on Bot Brilliance?

As Sun Tzu states in Art of War, "The whole secret lies in confusing the enemy, so that he cannot fathom our real intent." The less your enemy knows about your movements — and the more you know about theirs — the better your chance of victory. For centuries, commanders have looked to gain the upper hand by discovering what opponents are up to before the battle begins. But what happens when this isn't possible? Often described as the "first modern naval engagement in history," the Battle of the Coral Sea during World War II found American and Japanese carrier fleets facing off near Tulagi in the southern Solomon Islands, despite the fact that none of the ships ever saw each other. Here's a look at how the battle unfolded, why it matters and what it meant for the development of new military technology. Cracking the Code At the end of April 1942, Japanese forces looked to expand their influence in the Coral Sea by capturing two strategic ports: Port Moresby and Tulagi. Meanwhile, the Allies had succeeded in breaking Japanese communication codes and sent out all sea and air units available under the command of Rear Admiral Frank J. Fletcher. Although they arrived at Tulagi just after the Japanese landed, the Allied forces managed to sink a destroyer along with some landing barges and minesweepers. But the bulk of the Japanese carrier fleet remained at large and en route to Port Moresby. Unsure of their exact location, U.S. forces leveraged tools such as CXAM radar to find the Japanese ships and launch aerial attacks. And so the battle began. Four days later, 66 American warplanes had been destroyed along with the USS Lexington, an Essex-class aircraft carrier. The Allies downed 70 Japanese planes, and the damage to carriers such as the ShÅkaku was so extensive that the Japanese forces abandoned their invasion of Moresby. Changing the Game While destroyed carriers and downed warplanes were familiar losses in World War II, most engagements were fought traditionally; ships on both sides could see each other and used onboard artillery along with aircraft to engage the enemy. However, in the Battle of the Coral Sea, not a single shot was fired from aircraft carriers. Instead, the fighting was carried out entirely by warplanes and underpinned by radar. Instead of rushing into battle, the carriers kept their distance and relied on electronic intelligence to make strategic decisions. Leveraging both signals intelligence (SIGINT) and CXAM radar, the fleet kept tabs on their opponents and sent out aerial strikes to take down carriers and cripple operations, while the Japanese did the same. Some of the first fighters into the fray were Northrop Grumman F4F-3 Wildcats, which now have a place in the Smithsonian Museum. And while the battle was the first of its kind, it wasn't the last. Fighting in the Pacific theater for the remainder of World War II relied largely on this kind of electronic intelligence. C'ing Is Receiving Today, Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) is commonplace in military engagements. The use of new military technology — such as autonomous drones, 3D imaging and AI-driven battle simulators — helps commanders see what's coming before they commit to strategic initiatives. The Battle of the Coral Sea helped to set the stage for this kind of reliable intelligence reconnaissance. By using the technology of their day, commanders in the Coral Sea proved that it was possible to build an understanding of enemy movements even without direct observation. While the equipment and personnel costs were high for both sides, the use of at-a-distance discovery also helped limit to the number of vessels sunk in ship-to-ship combat and instead made it possible to rely on more agile warfighters to deliver on strategic objectives. Today, new C4ISR solutions are helping to further refine reconnaissance. For example, self-directed AI drones can now make on-the-fly decisions to discover enemy movements, while advanced imaging technologies can help to pinpoint threats no matter how they try to hide. Put simply: Sight is no longer the standard for effective military engagements. Armed with new and evolving technologies, military forces can find strategic advantage — even when they can't see it.

Sight Unseen: How the Battle of the Coral Sea Paved the Path for C4ISR

As rising global temperatures melt polar ice and open new sea routes, the Arctic is more physically accessible than ever before. But delivering a reliable communications capability to the High North, as the Northern polar region is called, has remained elusive — until now.
On Aug. 11, 2024, the Arctic Satellite Broadband Mission (ASBM) — a combined effort between Space Norway, the U.S. Space Force and Northrop Grumman — launched. Its payloads, hosted on Northrop Grumman's GEOStar-3 satellite bus, will establish full broadband coverage above 65°N for commercial and military end users.
But this first-of-its-kind achievement required scientists and engineers to look outside their orbit, literally.
Tapping In
As the name implies, GEOStar-3 satellites — like most communications satellites — have traditionally flown in geostationary orbit (GEO), explained Carlos Niederstrasser, mission architect, Northrop Grumman. Spacecraft in GEO fly 36,786 kilometers in altitude above the equator and move at the same speed as the Earth rotates, completing a full orbit every 24 hours.
However, due to Earth's curvature, GEO satellites cannot provide coverage to the poles from their vantage point. It's the satellite equivalent of something being just outside your line of sight.
To address this challenge, the Northrop Grumman and Space Norway teams turned to a rarely-used type of highly elliptical orbit (HEO) called a Three Apogee (TAP) orbit. Instead of a circular path around the equator — like GEO — a TAP orbit is elongated into an ellipse and tilted relative to the globe, giving satellites in TAP orbit visibility to the High North during a large percentage of the orbit.
"What results is that one side of the orbit is pretty close to the Earth, and the other side is pretty far away," said Carlos.
Seeing Double
Due to Earth's gravitational pull, a spacecraft in a TAP orbit travels slowly along its path when it is furthest away from the Earth (known as apogee), then moves more quickly through the portion of its orbit that's closest to the Earth (known as perigee). For ASBM, the orbit's apogee is at a high northern latitude, which means that the satellite moves slowly over the Arctic for 10 hours of its 16-hour orbit and, and during that time, can provide coverage to the High North.
"The satellite appears to hang right in the same place in the sky," said Carlos. "It gives you something that almost behaves like a GEO but has the benefit of being very well-visible from all of the Arctic region."
But to achieve continuous communications coverage, one satellite wouldn't cut it, according to Richard Macheske, chief engineer, ASBM, Northrop Grumman.
The solution? A two-satellite constellation.
The ASBM satellites are twins — each GEOStar-3 satellite hosts Northrop Grumman-built payloads for the Norwegian Armed Forces, Viasat and the U.S. Space Force — and travel on opposite sides of the TAP orbit. This mirrored approach ensures that one of the two satellites is always on deck to deliver assured communications in the High North.

From GEO to HEO
Flying the GEOStar-3 in HEO may seem counterintuitive. But, according to Richard, the GEOStar-3 is more than up to the task of flying in different orbits.
"Overall, GEOStar-3 is perfectly suited for this and many other orbits, even though it's called a GEOStar," said Richard. "It should operate more or less like a GEO, which was the whole intent: doing the minimum amount of changes to work in this different orbit."
The ASBM satellites leveraged Northrop Grumman-produced solar arrays, propellant tanks, heat pipe panels and satellite bus structures with very few modifications. Tweaks for operating in HEO included structural changes to account for different radiation levels, changes to the attitude control system, solar array system and star tracker as well as adaptations for surface charging. The satellite's command and control system is also operated differently, explained Carlos, because — unlike in GEO — ground stations do not have constant contact with HEO satellites.
In addition to its communication mission, ASBM offers a unique opportunity to study the nuances of HEO. The mission includes a radiation monitor, owned by the European Commission, and designed and built by a Norwegian company called IDEAS. This monitor which will collect radiation data providing engineers and scientists with insights into this little-flown orbit, charting the course for future missions in the Northern polar region.
Learn more about Northrop Grumman connecting the Arctic with Cutting-Edge Satellite Communications. 

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