Before any equipment or hardware is sent to space, it's usually rigorously tested to make sure it can withstand the extremes of space. From cold temperatures to radiation, space is hard on equipment, but hardware also functions differently in space than on Earth because of differing gravity. How, then, do organizations like NASA go about simulating zero gravity on Earth?
Astronauts test their mettle with the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory (NBL), a giant pool that holds 6.2 billion gallons of water. Thanks to the size, astronauts can work with life-sized mockups to help them prepare for their journey into space. But the NBL is only for astronaut training, not for testing equipment to see how it would fare in space.
This begs the question — can we create zero gravity on Earth? And how reliable is it for testing equipment that will be sent into outer space? Let's find out.
Parabolic Flights Play an Important Role
Parabolic flights help with replicating zero-gravity conditions on Earth by providing up to 40 seconds of "freefall." The origins of parabolic flight to simulate zero gravity go back to 1950, when it was first proposed by researchers at Brooks Air Force Base in Texas. By 1959, pilots were able to achieve 10 to 15 seconds of freefall in a C-131B cargo transport, which was large enough to both train astronauts and test equipment. This was a part of the Air Force's Reduced Gravity Program, which started in 1957 and has been run by NASA since 1973.
These flights work by flying in the shape of a parabola. The aircraft begins accelerating, and then the pilot pulls up. When the plane is going up at a fast enough speed, the pilot performs a pushover, reducing thrust, which allows the occupants and equipment on the plane to fall at the same speed as the aircraft.
Parabolic flight is a low-cost and often-used method of simulating zero gravity on Earth (or to simulate gravity on the moon or Mars), but it is limited by duration.
Gravity Offload Systems Offload Weight
Gravity offload systems work by using an overhead crane-type device to offload the weight of a human or equipment to simulate zero gravity, lunar gravity and the gravity on Mars. The Active Response Gravity Offload System (ARGOS) is a large device located at NASA's Johnson Space Center. It actively tracks and follows motion using a cable angle sensor. This means that equipment and spacecraft can be moved around and interacted with, and ARGOS will maintain the simulated gravity level. Similar effects can be achieved with a complex weight and pulley system to offload the effects of Earth's gravity — a system that engineers used to test the James Webb Space Telescope.
While ARGOS is a large device, there are smaller gravity offload tables perfect for testing equipment. NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center has a table that consists of a large piece of polished and leveled granite. They're actually able to make test equipment "float" on top of the table thanks to the sled they're placed on — air bearings produce a thin layer of air underneath the sled, which makes it float on top of the table. "It's basically like an air hockey table in reverse," said Robotics Demonstration and Test Engineer, Joe Easley of NASA Goddard.
The downside to gravity offload systems is that they don't always offer the six directions you can move things in zero gravity — for example, the gravity offload table only offers three degrees of freedom, which can limit accuracy.
A Zero-G Research Facility Also Helps
NASA also has a specific Zero Gravity Research Facility at Glenn Research Center that's been in operation since 1966. It works by using a 467-foot-long steel vacuum chamber. A vacuum pump reduces the pressure to 0.05 torr. (For comparison, standard atmospheric pressure is 760 torr.) Then, a crane drops the equipment or experiment into the vacuum chamber and researchers have 5.18 seconds to study it in freefall. Like parabolic flight, the downside to this method is the short amount of time available, as well as a weight limit of 2,500 lbs.
Researchers are always looking for new ways to test hardware and experiments before sending them to space. But these days, as the costs of access to space get lower, the International Space Station is often used as a testbed for hardware rather than trying to figure out how can we create zero gravity on Earth.
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How Does NASA Simulate Zero Gravity on Earth to Test Equipment?

The night sky is never just black, thanks to the stars and the moon. On cloudy nights, the clouds can reflect enough of the moon's light to illuminate basic tasks, like walking through a field. At northern and southern latitudes, there may be dazzling auroras as charged particles from the sun collide with gases in Earth's upper atmosphere to create flashes of green, yellow, blue or red light. Auroras are also known to occur in the thin Mars atmosphere, as explained by NASA.
 
 
 
Scientists have now detected a different green light around Mars called nightglow, as reported in a study published in the journal Nature Astronomy. The study used data collected by the European Space Agency's (ESA's) ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO). While auroras are constantly changing, nightglow is more stable — creating a dome of green light that's consistently present over the Martian pole when experiencing winter. Under clear skies, the nightglow could be as bright as moonlit clouds on Earth, providing enough light for rovers to navigate or astronauts to see at night.
 
 
 
What Causes Nightglow?
 
 
 
As noted in Nature Astronomy, the energy for nightglow comes from the sun's ultraviolet light, which heats the Mars atmosphere on the dayside. This causes carbon dioxide molecules to split into their constituent atoms. When these atoms are transported to the nightside by wind, they lose energy and combine to form molecules again. As part of this process, two oxygen atoms can combine to form dioxide, which releases energy in the form of green light. This process occurs 40 to 60 km (~25 to 37 miles) above the surface, producing an emerald green night light over the winter hemisphere of the red planet.
 
 
 
Nightglow also occurs on other planets, with different molecules in the atmosphere producing different colors. According to the ESA, the nightglow on Venus is infrared. Earth also has nightglow, although it is not visible from the planet's surface. Astronauts aboard the International Space Station have taken spectacular photos of Earth's horizon with layers of green, orange or red nightglow, some of which are available to view through the Scientific Visualization Studio at NASA.
 
 
 
The effect is more broadly called airglow, which can occur during the day as dayglow or at night as nightglow. In the early 1980s, ultraviolet airglow was detected over Mars by NASA's Mariner 9 spacecraft, as a study published in the Journal of Geophysical Research showed. In 2012, infrared airglow over Mars was detected by the ESA's Mars Express orbiter. In 2020, green dayglow over Mars was also detected by the ESA's ExoMars TGO, according to a study published in Nature Astronomy. While this dayglow was in the visible spectrum for humans, special equipment was needed to detect the signal in daylight. The most recent discovery of green nightglow over Mars opens up additional research opportunities.
 
 
 
Illuminating Scientific Discovery
 
 
 
The green light around Mars isn't just a cool phenomenon — the light can provide insight into the processes that occur in the Martian atmosphere. For example, it can provide information about the composition, dynamics and oxygen density of a region of the atmosphere that's otherwise difficult to measure. The data can also reveal how sunlight and solar wind (charged particles from the sun) deposit energy into the atmosphere. The intensity of the Martian nightglow means that these measurements can be obtained with relatively simple, lower-cost instrumentation. A future Mars mission could carry a camera specifically for this purpose.
 
 
 
This information will be useful when planning future missions to Mars. For example, atmospheric density affects the drag experienced by orbiting satellites and the parachutes used to deliver payloads to the surface. Atmospheric changes also occur before dust storms, as study author M.R. Patel explained to BBC News in 2020. Therefore, measuring the green airglow could help guide the entry, descent and landing of future Mars probes.
 
 
 
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Green Light Around Mars Will Illuminate Space Exploration

On June 25, 2023, a door at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, was closed and secured behind four volunteer researchers, sealing them into a 1,700-square-foot environment. Their task for the next 378 days: to get as close to exploring Mars as possible without actually making the trip to Mars.This simulated mission to Mars is the first of three year-long NASA exercises which, as NASA explains, will study the human dimension of Mars exploration. The program is called the Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog (CHAPEA).CHAPEA deputy project manager Raina MacLeod says the goal of this simulated Mars mission is to look at "how the crew performance and health changes based on realistic Mars restrictions and lifestyle of the crew members."Routine EmergenciesSpace exploration is an inherently dramatic activity, and as NASA understands very well, the universe provides plenty of drama to keep space explorers on their toes. The task of mission planners is to anticipate drama and minimize it as far as possible, because in exploration, drama can be deadly. Thus, NASA puts great effort into practicing whatever can be practiced, so that — as far as possible — even emergencies become routine.There's much about Mars that we can only learn by going there. But we don't need to go to Mars to study the challenges of working and living for a long time in cramped quarters.According to NASA, that's the task of the Mars simulator in which mission commander Kelly Haston, a research scientist, along with structural engineer Ross Brockwell, emergency medical specialist Nathan Jones and microbiologist Anca Selariu will be living until July 2024.Known as Mars Dune Alpha, the Mars simulator is located inside a hanger at the Johnson Space Center. It contains living quarters, working spaces and laboratories for the crew. In addition, it includes a "sandbox" for simulating Mars-like conditions on Earth, allowing the virtual explorers to practice Mars walks and research activities on the Martian surface.Building on ExperienceThe design of Mars Dune Alpha has already been influenced by prior space experience. According to CHAPEA investigator Scott M. Smith, as reported by CNN, "the separation of the living area with the work area was very intentional," based on the experience reported by crews aboard the International Space Station. "When you're living in the office, literally having the ability to physically separate was important."The activities performed by the researchers in Mars Dune Alpha will range from basic routines, such as personal hygiene and cooking, to suiting up (in pairs, like the "buddy system" for divers) for outside excursions onto the simulated Martian surface of the sandbox. Tasks will include recognizing, handling and describing simulated Mars rocks, while the combination of a treadmill and virtual reality headsets will simulate traverses across Martian surface distances much larger than the actual confines of the sandbox.The Mars Dune Alpha team will also experience environmental stressors, NASA noted, that could be expected during a mission to Mars, such as equipment failures, while communications with Ground Control will be purposely delayed to represent the time it takes for radio signals to pass between Earth and Mars.Printing a Mars BasePer NASA, the design and construction of Mars Dune Alpha have also pioneered technologies we'll need to live on and explore Mars.The entire facility was built by 3D printing technology, utilizing a material dubbed "lavacrete" to replicate the characteristics of Martian surface material, or regolith. And controlling a robot-supported building process is one of the basic tasks the CHAPEA research team will practice, as the first tasks of future Mars exploration missions may include building habitats for their prolonged stay.We're not at that point yet, but tucked away in a hanger in Texas, Mars Dune Alpha and its crew of volunteer scientists are a reminder that the age of Mars exploration has already begun.Learn more about our people and life at Northrop Grumman, or check out our career opportunities to see how you can be a part of defining possible.

A New Type of Mission to Mars: Simulating a Year on the Red Planet

It's one thing to get carsick. It's a whole other thing to get sick in space.
While carsickness eventually subsides, some astronauts have faced poor health long after they've completed a mission. It's an unfortunate conclusion to an undoubtedly exhilarating experience — but scientists are furthering their understanding of how weak gravity can affect the immune system in space with the aim of keeping astronauts healthy. They're also trying to protect astronauts from space radiation.
Their findings will be critical as NASA launches its grand plan to create a base on the moon and explore Mars, testing astronauts' physical endurance as they spend more time in space than ever before.
Biology Goes Up Against the Harshness of Space
What happens if you get sick in space? Astronauts can, indeed, get sick in space, and because they're traveling in a sealed environment, illness could rapidly spread and jeopardize a mission. With this concern in mind, NASA typically quarantines astronauts for a week before a launch, and as seen on the International Space Station (ISS), at least two crew members are medically trained, according to WIRED.
But NASA is particularly focused on long-term health conditions that astronauts contend with once they return home. Astronauts have experienced rashes, heart arrhythmia, ear conditions, dehydration, low blood pressure and loss of bone calcium.
NASA's Human Research Program studies the risks to the human body in space. For instance, as NASA enters the beginning stages of its Artemis program, it's working to improve how it shields and monitors radiation that's more intense and varied than on Earth.
Then, there's gravity. It causes bones to lose as much as 1.5% of mineral density each month in space, and it affects the flow of bodily fluids, which can lead to eye and kidney problems. To that end, during and after a mission, NASA tests an astronaut's balance and fine motor skills and monitors the distribution of fluids in the body.
To get an even truer sense of how gravity affects astronauts, NASA conducted a landmark experiment on two of them: identical twins Scott and Mark Kelly. Mark stayed on Earth while Scott spent nearly a year on ISS. As soon as Scott reached space, more than 1,000 of his genes changed, signaling the activation of DNA repair and immune system regulation, as Space.com reported. His immune system, a study co-author said, was basically on "high alert."
Learning How Immunity Works in Space
Two recent studies furthered the "Twins Study" by looking more closely at what happens to the immune system in space. In 2021, Stanford University and University of California, San Francisco, researchers found that the weakening of an astronaut's immune system during space flight seems to be partly caused by the abnormal activation of immune cells called T regulator cells (Tregs).
In the gravity of Earth, Tregs are typically triggered to slow immune responses when infection no longer threatens the body. But in microgravity conditions, changes in Tregs make them go to work before the immune system is challenged. When the researchers stimulated an immune response in human immune cells from blood samples in microgravity, they found that Tregs helped suppress the immune response that was triggered.
A University of Ottawa study also connected gravity to changes in the immune system, but instead of simulating microgravity, these researchers examined blood samples of ISS astronauts taken before, during and after their missions. They found that space slows the activity of genes in leukocytes — white blood cells that are crucial to the immune system.
An astronaut's blood shifts from their legs to their torsos and heads once in space, forcing the body to reduce fluid by as much as 15%. This causes immune cells to cram into a smaller amount of blood. The researchers believe gene activity eliminates the extra cells, which changes how the immune system responds to pathogens. "It's as if the body is telling (the cells), 'Don't defend, put your guards down,'" the lead researcher told NPR.
Science Needs to Protect Astronauts
Determining how astronauts can be protected from radiation will also be key to lengthy space missions.
The University of British Columbia, for example, will study yeast samples that flew onboard Artemis I on its unmanned flight around the moon. The researchers will look at genetic changes in the yeast cells to determine the influence of radiation and possibly use the information to develop drugs or treatments that can help astronauts tolerate radiation shocks and reduce adverse health effects, according to Smithsonian Magazine.
For years just a dream, deep space exploration is finally set to happen. But for those dreams to be fully realized, future studies will need to continue to examine what happens to the immune system in space and why to help protect the health of astronauts on their historic journeys.
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What Happens to Your Immune System in Space? 

Just over 400 years ago, Galileo made the first telescopic observations of Mars. Ever since, earthlings have been obsessed with watching the Red Planet. In the 19th century, astronomer Percival Lowell noted that canals seemed to line the surface of Mars, according to National Geographic. Curiosity about Mars's surface has persisted. While dozens of robotic missions have flown by, orbited and landed on Mars since the 20th century, a new Mars lander will begin the first detailed study of the planet's interior after it lands later this year. Hunting for Marsquakes Aiming to open a new chapter in space discoveries, NASA's InSight lander began its 205-day, 485 million-kilometer journey to Earth's neighbor, with a boost from a United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket that took off from California's Vandenberg Air Force Base on May 5, 2018. It's scheduled to land on Mars on Nov. 26, according to NASA. InSight, short for Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport, will examine the planet's deep interior to build on our knowledge of how tectonically active it is as well as the formation of the rocky planets of our solar system, including Earth. To do that, the Mars lander has three main instruments: the Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS), a seismometer that will try to detect "marsquakes" for the first time; the Rotation and Interior Structure Experiment (RISE), which tracks Mars' wobble as it orbits, potentially shedding light on the composition of its core; and the Heat Flow and Physical Properties Probe (HP3), which can take temperature readings up to almost 5 meters below the surface — the deepest drill ever done outside Earth, said NASA. Life on Mars, Past and Future NASA's Curiosity rover, which has been on Mars since 2012, found the first confirmed particles of organic matter on Mars in 2014, according to NASA. In June 2018, researchers reported in Science that data from Curiosity "provide conclusive evidence for the presence of organic compounds — thiophenic, aromatic, and aliphatic compounds — in drill samples from Mars' Gale crater." The presence of organic molecules has fueled the hunt for water on Mars. Researchers affiliated with the European Space Agency's Mars Express orbiter, which launched in 2003, reported the discovery of a lake of liquid water beneath the frozen ice cap on Mars' south pole, said Science. Commenting on the findings, NASA reported that InSight "will provide crucial data on how much heat escapes the planet and where liquid water could exist near its surface." If InSight can determine whether Mars is seismically "alive," it could aid in humanity's search for extraterrestrials. Any mention of water on Mars stokes popular interest in the prospects of humans exploring and colonizing Mars. Under its Space Policy Directive 1, the U.S. is planning to return astronauts to the moon and eventually send people to Mars, said NASA. The challenges of getting them to the Red Planet safely are manifold. For instance, scientists are still debating how much radiation Mars-bound humans could withstand and how they could be best protected during the long journey, according to Smithsonian.com. Even if that problem is solved, Mars explorers must be provided with shelter, food and water. Boots on the Regolith  If there is a water source already on Mars, the concept of building a long-term colony could be a lot more feasible.  Mars One is a one-way mission to Mars in efforts to establish a permanent settlement, with no possibility of returning to Earth. Spearheaded by entrepreneur Bas Landorp, Mars One noted, "Mars is an unforgiving environment where a small mistake or accident can result in large failure, injury, and death. Every component must work perfectly. Every system (and its backup) must function without fail or human life is at risk." Could InSight help pave the way for a future settlement on Mars? When it comes to space discoveries, the more we know about the Red Planet, the better. Once the latest Mars lander gets to work, we'll begin a whole new chapter in our understanding of this new frontier.

NASA's InSight Mars Lander Could Gather Vital Data for Colonization

Let's face it: discovering where something came from can be confoundingly difficult. Tracing human lineage is hard, even with gene sequencing at our fingertips. Microscopic life unexpectedly pops up every day in places it shouldn't, like the outside of the space station. As for picking ancient nanobacteria out of billion-year-old space rubble: even if we found nanobacteria, how could we be certain about its origins? After all, for almost a decade, we didn't even know that the now-famous Alan Hills Martian meteorite came from Mars. To answer the long-standing question, "Is there life on Mars?" humankind needs to level up its sleuthing skills or make fundamental changes in how we look for exobiology. Or, perhaps, we can do both. Leveling Up by Looking Inward Knowing what you're looking at is a good first step toward finding what you're looking for. After being spotted during an Antarctic snowmobile ride in 1984, the oldest Mars meteorite discovered to date was erroneously identified as a fragment of an asteroid named 4 Vesta. The space rock, thereafter known as "ALH 84001," remained mislabeled until 1996, when NASA geochemist David Mittlefehldt found orthopyroxenite in the 4.5 billion-year-old sample. Orthopyroxenite is known to have formed when magma overflowed onto the surface of Mars when that planet was very young. So young, in fact, that this particular magma was on the surface of Mars at the same time that water might have been there in abundance. Indeed, ALH 84001's chemistry is such that, as this particular piece of magma cooled, it interacted with water and captured gasses from the Martian atmosphere. When it was discovered that the ingredients for Martian life — water, warmth and a (comparatively) thick atmosphere — were all in the same place at the same time as ALH 84001, that mislabeled meteorite went on to become one of the most studied rocks in history. Shortly thereafter, extremely tiny structures that resembled Earth's own nanobacteria were found within the rock. All at once, "Is there life on Mars, and did we just find it?" became the question of the hour, the week and the entire career of some astrobiologists. Though some still believe that these worm-like forms, which are only 0.00002 millimeters wide, may be evidence of ancient life on Mars, many astrobiologists agree that it's less likely that these structures represent once-living nanobacteria than nanobes: 500 nanometer-wide structures that form inorganically. Looking for life in ALH 84001 turned out to be a lesson in how looks can be, if not deceiving, at least confusing. The more carefully we looked at smaller and smaller slices of the meteorite, the less certain it became that what we were looking at had ever been alive, or perhaps had been a part of something that was once alive. In other words, structures alone couldn't tell us. The chemistry alone couldn't tell us, either. The same chemicals often appear both where life both is and where it is not. When a rover finds methane on the surface of Mars, we wonder, "Did a life form make this or not?" In simple terms, trying to answer the question, "Is there life on Mars?" based on what life looks like to someone from Earth has thus far been difficult and unsatisfying. Looking for chemical traces of what life might have left behind billions of years ago brings its own challenges. Methane from a peat bog on Earth may, chemically, look indistinguishable from methane retrieved from the surface of an asteroid, comet or Mars rover sample. Fortunately, there may be a way to look at the chemistry not in terms of what's there, but in terms of what shouldn't be there. A potentially necessary shift in the search for life may involve asking the question, "Is there any way to get these molecules without life being involved?" A Shift Toward Energetic Evidence The next big leap in finding nanobacteria and other life — fossilized or otherwise — may be Agnostic Biosignatures. Agnostic biosignatures are signs of chemical complexity. Any body in the universe may have carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen on, over or beneath its surface. The energy necessary to transform raw materials like carbon and oxygen into complex byproducts like sugar often comes from what we call life. This definition of life as we know it doesn't have a particular form. It doesn't come from a certain type of place. In this case, the definition of life is boiled down to its absolute essential function: a self-replicating, self-contained series of processes that uses energy to turn simple ingredients into something less simple. In other words, by this method, we look for lifeforms without form — or, at least, without forms we can easily recognize — by focusing on their functions instead. Practical application of the agnostic biosignatures approach requires a thorough understanding of the planetary environment and a bit of energetic accounting. Astrobiologists like Heather Graham at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center take a thorough look at the basic chemistry of an environment, examining how much carbon, oxygen, etc. is present. Then they look at what minerals and complex molecules are present. Comparing the basic ingredients with the complex components they find, Dr. Graham, Dr. Johnson and others who work in the field of life detection then ask: Is this assemblage possible given the amount of energy in the environment? Or would it require more energy? If complex molecules are present, but the energy in the system isn't sufficient to have formed them, the next best answer for how those molecules may have gotten there isâ€¦ life! But life from where? Interplanetary Family Trees What complicates the search for life more than anything else? If it could be summed up in a word, that word might be panspermia. Panspermia is the idea that all living things have a common origin — that the tree of life arose from a single seed capable of taking root in the wider universe. Panspermia may sound like it grew out of science fiction. In fact, the idea of life everywhere in the Universe having a single origin has been considered by many cultures, philosophers, scientists and even a Nobel Prize winner, Svante Arrhenius. Arrhenius wasn't an astrobiologist, an astronomer or a geologist. He was an electrochemist who laid the groundwork for studies of what we now know as the greenhouse effect. Svante Arrhenius was a master of the interplay between chemistry and energy, and it seemed reasonable to him, and to many scientists since, that if all matter and energy in the Universe had a common origin, all life might too. Whether or not all life everywhere has a common ancestor, extant life on Earth and past (or present) life on Mars might have one. Lithopanspermia — the idea that rocks could have carried the blueprints for life back and forth between the third and fourth planets from the Sun — means that, on some level, life on Mars might be difficult to distinguish from life on Earth. Carbon-dating might tell us how long ago life on Mars began, how long it hung on and when it ceased. However, carbon dating cannot tell us if life on Mars started on Earth, or vice versa. If the samples currently being collected by Curiosity return to Earth with evidence of life, energetic or otherwise, nanobacteria, or something bigger, the next task may be to determine if that long-gone life arose on Mars, or if it started on Earth and made its way to Mars. If fossilized life from Mars ends up looking like something that descended from the oldest branch of Earth's family tree, we may have the opportunity to ask ourselves who the aliens among us are. Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team. 

The Hard Call: Looking for Life on Mars Amid Rubble, Rocks and Soil Samples

Evidence of ancient water on Mars is a big deal, as it bolsters the theory that, at one point in the Red Planet's past, it was capable of supporting life. This naturally prompted further investigation, so Curiosity targeted Gale Crater, which showed signs of having been a lake on Mars billions of years ago. Now, a new theory suggests that acid rain and erosion may be responsible for much of Gale's geological makeup, which raises an interesting question: Water we going to do about it? Water, Water ... Somewhere? There's no doubt that Mars once had water. What's less certain is exactly how much water it had and how it got there. Finding these answers will be tricky since we're looking at the end result and trying to interpret what led up to the current conditions. Sure, it was wet, but when and how did Mars dry up? Unsurprisingly, there's no clear consensus here. For example, the Mars Ocean Hypothesis suggests that four billion years ago the planet had enough water to create a massive ocean 100 to 1,500 meters deep. Low Martian gravity made it possible for much of this water to escape into space, and the planet eventually dried out as a result. But another theory suggests that off-planet evaporation wasn't enough to account for all of Mars' water, and some of it — between 30% and 99% — remains trapped in the crust. As NPR notes, a new study from Washington University in St. Louis suggests that the Red Planet's size and mass (one-half and one-tenth of Earth's, respectively) made it impossible for oceans to form. Instead, the escape of elements into space happened rapidly enough that oceans were out of the question. If this is true, it challenges the notion that primordial conditions for life on Earth may have once been mirrored on Mars. Martian lakes, however, seemed relatively safe from this scientific back-and-forth — until now. Don't Rain on My Parade Existing interpretations of data suggest that Gale Crater once held massive amounts of water, possibly as one giant lake on Mars or as a series of smaller lakes and rivers. It's part of why Curiosity went exploring Gale Crater. Given its position straddling the "hot" and "cold" sides of Mars, the crater could have been a primordial cauldron of life. According to a new study from the University of Hong Kong, however, the amount of water present may have been much smaller than originally thought. Instead of deep lakes and rivers, the study's authors suggest that wind, acid rain and erosion are responsible for currently observed conditions. While there's no disputing the presence of mineral-rich sediment, the Hong Kong study challenges the notion that the hardened sediment that now makes up Mount Sharp in the middle of Gale Crater is the result of slowly evaporating lakes. Instead, it suggests that the metrics used to study sediment deposits on Earth don't account for Martian conditions. As a result, the Hong Kong team says it's more likely that minerals were carried by Martian winds to the site and then weathered over time by acid rain. They don't deny the existence of water in Gale Crater but, rather, point to a landscape dotted with small ponds instead of one covered by deep, dark lakes. Curiosity, Perseverance and the Future of the Mystery While the new theory offers a new interpretation of existing data, it's by no means a sure thing. Professor Paul Byrne, associate professor of planetary science at North Carolina State University, notes that, "There seems to be a great amount of evidence for water having been ponded in Gale Crater for substantially long time scales." If so, a complete accounting of the minerologies and morphologies of existing sediments would be required to offer more substantial support. Curiosity led the way with its collection of Gale Crater data. Now, Perseverance is headed for Jezero Crater — which is similar to Gale in many respects — on a hunt for more data about the interaction of rivers, lakes and rain on Mars. NASA's newest rover may offer a way to solve one of the biggest challenges in off-planet science: data at distance. Without samples in hand, researchers can only interpret information rather than directly confirm observations. Perseverance, however, will not only analyze Martian sediment but also collect samples that will eventually be brought back to Earth, enabling researchers to finally get their hands on a piece of the Red Planet. Although it's unlikely that a small amount of dirt and rocks will crack open the water mystery of Mars immediately, they could offer the opportunity for more in-depth analysis and hopefully help settle the question of whether massive lakes on Mars were the historical norm, or whether acid and erosion reigned supreme. Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman, and consider joining our team.

Water You Going to Do About It? Massive Lake on Mars May Be Acid Rain Remnants

Mars is a source of deep fascination for us here on Earth. The two planets are similar in size and terrain, and so the thought that the red planet could also hold life has captured the human imagination for ages. Life on Earth depends on water, so for more than a century scientists have searched for signs of water on Mars. Today, several missions are exploring the terrain, targetting evidence of water among other goals. So far, extensive mapping shows that there is none, and that the arid planet is dry, dusty and cold. But some believe there is still water beneath the surface, and even if not, there is reason to believe the planet once boasted Hâ‚‚O.  So, where did the water on Mars go? Recent research suggests that its disappearance is, like so many things in science, complicated.  Was There Once Liquid Water on Mars? A watery history for Mars does seem to exist. Space surveys performed by orbiting spacecraft and surface rovers show that certain Martian features were probably formed by liquid water flowing across the surface. There's even evidence that some of it remains as a deep subglacial lake of saltwater under the Martian South Pole. Deep surface penetration scanning showed the salty deposits, which have also been identified in several other areas. However, Nature notes that these will probably not exist as liquid water on Mars and are more likely to be slush or sludge due to the extreme cold. Topographical analysis and comparisons with similar formations on Earth have also pointed to there being oceans in Mars's distant past. Nova notes that researchers found a 30-kilometer difference in height between the northern and southern hemispheres of Mars. Their explanation was that this step is evidence of an ocean covering some of the planet, since a similar step appears on Earth. Not Always Too Cold for Liquid Water on Mars Our planet is very much a blue planet, contrasting with the dry and arid environment on Mars. One reason for this is that Earth is warmed by the sun, so our water exists in liquid form. Inverse notes that Mars is just too cold for liquid water, but this may not have always been so. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration weather forecast for Mars gives the average daily temperatures there as -81 degrees F (-63 degrees C). A paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences suggests that clouds could have contributed to planetary warming and thus supported pools of surface water. Adapting terrestrial computer modelling, the scientists determined (through a cloud greenhouse hypothesis) that a warm arid climate might have existed on Mars, which could have raised temperatures despite the planet only receiving about 30% of the sun power hitting us here on Earth. Where Did the Water on Mars Go? Despite evidence of a watery past for the planet, Mars today is dry and dusty. Any water it contained in the past is now only suggested through landscape features. Caltech describes how an orbital survey by NASA's Odyssey mission observed large salt deposits on the Martian surface, showing that water existed in large surface ponds more than a billion years longer than previously believed. There are various theories to explain why Mars today is dry and contains no or very little water in liquid form. One theory, described by NPR, is that the planet is simply too small. Since gravity is a factor of mass and density, the size of Mars does not create enough gravity to keep hold of its water. The significance of this for space exploration is in exoplanet research, as hunting for Earth-like planets that might support life must factor in size and gravity in assessing the likelihood of life being present. However, water evaporating into space doesn't account for all of the water lost on Mars. Some scientists posit that's because some of it is still there. Caltech describes how water could remain on the surface of Mars, just not as a liquid. Scientific American describes this as "crustal hydration," in which water is effectively incorporated into minerals. When Mars inexplicably lost its magnetic field and most of its atmosphere, the surface became more exposed to the sun. Water simply became trapped within minerals in the Martian crust and may remain there to this day. While the red Mars of today is arid and dusty, it likely once held expansive oceans. More research into the ancient waters of Mars and how the red planet lost its oceans will likely lead to even more profound insights in the years to come. Interested in all things related to outer space and exploration? We are too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman, and consider joining our team.

Where Did the Liquid Water on Mars Go? Is It Still There?

For years, earthlings have wondered about the potential for life on Mars. Little did we know that clues about the Red Planet could actually be tied to what's here on our blue marble.  A recent discovery of organic matter on Mars led to the detection of a compound, thiophene, that is also native to Earth. Scientists have been studying the Martian compound to learn more about life there and to uncover any further connections with Earth.  It's just another breakthrough on a long list of space discoveries over the past half-century that give us a better understanding of our solar system, and how the 7.6 billion people of Earth fit in with the inestimable pieces of matter in the universe.  Clues That Offer Hints About Martian Life  While making observations on the surface of Mars in 2018, NASA's Curiosity rover found "tough" organic molecules in 3-billion-year-old mudstone — a fine-grained sedimentary rock — in the planet's Gale Crater. Mars' inhospitable surface couldn't sustain life today, but the data collected from the molecules showed that a water lake inside Gale Crater had the necessary ingredients for chemical building blocks and an energy source, enough to kick-start some form of life.  As NASA noted at the time of the rover's discovery, although organic molecules hold carbon and hydrogen — or oxygen, nitrogen and other elements — the molecules from the mudstone don't necessarily suggest there was ever life on the planet. Organic molecules can also be formed by non-biological processes, NASA added.  Still, a study of those observations back here on Earth has recently captured attention because of what's been found in the organic matter on Mars: the heterocyclic compound thiophene. (A heterocyclic compound has atoms of at least two different elements.) Astrobiologists Dirk Schulzeâ€‘Makuch of Washington State University and Jacob Heinz of Technische Université¤t in Berlin believe the presence of thiophenes could point to the presence of early life on Mars.  As they outlined this year in the peer-reviewed journal Astrobiology, Schulzeâ€‘Makuch and Heinz's study of the organic matter suggests that a biological process that probably involved bacteria might have played a hand in the compound's existence on Mars.  "We identified several biological pathways for thiophenes that seem more likely than chemical ones, but we still need proof," Schulzeâ€‘Makuch told the Insider of Washington State University. "If you find thiophenes on Earth, then you would think they are biological, but on Mars, of course, the bar to prove that has to be quite a bit higher."  Coal, crude oil and even white truffles that are found on Earth contain thiophenes. As the Insider notes, thiophene molecules hold four carbon atoms and a sulfur atom arranged in a ring. Although carbon and sulfur are bioâ€‘essential elements, Schulzeâ€‘Makuch and Heinz couldn't definitively rule out any nonâ€‘biological processes creating the compounds on Mars.  One such possibility is that a meteor crashing into Mars created a non-biological condition for the organic compound to develop. Another possibility is a process known as thermochemical sulfate reduction, in which a set of compounds is heated to 248 degrees Fahrenheit or higher.  Yet, the astrobiologists also don't preclude the idea that when Mars was warmer and wetter more than 3 billion years ago, the groundwork for a biological kind of sulfate reduction process could have formed thiophenes.  Opportunities for More Space Discoveries  Further studies of Mars will hopefully discover more elements of the planet that could reveal even more about what formed its landscape and what conditions unfolded to possibly create and sustain life there. And as the astrobiologists' study shows, there may be more connections between Earth and Mars. Still, scientists that they are, Schulzeâ€‘Makuch and Heinz urge holding back on speculation until Mars can be studied up close by humans.  "As Carl Sagan said 'extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence,'" Schulzeâ€‘Makuch told the Insider. "I think the proof will really require that we actually send people there, and an astronaut looks through a microscope and sees a moving microbe." 

Organic Matter on Mars Could Point to Life Years Ago

If you were a geologist searching for evidence about the formation of Mars, you might think that you would have to travel to Mars to look for it. But some critical new Mars discoveries have come from an unexpected place — the Sahara Desert. The evidence, reported by Space.com, came in the form of a meteorite found in 2011 in Northwest Africa, appropriately named Northwest Africa (NWA) 7034. Dubbed "Black Beauty," the meteorite was at first taken for an ordinary earthly rock. It sat for months on one scientist's shelf before close examination showed that it was indeed a meteorite, according to Science.  Through Zircons, a Window Into Deep Time NWA 7034's chemical composition showed that it originated on Mars — yet it differed from other meteorites known to be of Martian origin, said Science.com.  A rock's composition and structure tell the story of its history; for NWA 7034, this means an extraordinary history stretching back 4.547 billion years to a time when, per Space.com, the entire solar system was only about 20 million years old. The meteorite contains crystals known as zircons, which contain naturally radioactive uranium and hafnium atoms. The gradual radioactive decay of these atoms allows precise measurement of the time that has passed since a zircon formed. This trait leads one researcher to describe a zircon, according to Space.com, as "'a small time capsule'" Analysis of seven zircons from NWA 7034 shows that they formed between 4.43 and 4.48 billion years ago; one zircon is the oldest piece of Mars measured so far. But measurement of hafnium in the zircons showed that it had been encased in solid rock for some 100 million years before cataclysmic ancient forces transformed the original rock and formed the zircons themselves, said Space.com. A Journey Through Space and Time The halfnium measurements show that Mars took form rapidly by cosmic standards. By the time the solar system was 20 million years old, the formation of Mars had already proceeded far enough to form a solid rocky crust — a necessary precondition for water vapor in the atmosphere to condense into oceans as the planet gradually cooled, according to Space.com. By comparison, the solidification of Earth's crust, noted Space.com, took about 130 million years longer. Mars may have had a substantial head start over Earth in forming oceans and, potentially, providing an environment in which life could emerge. We don't know when oceans actually formed on Mars — only that they did. We can still identify seabeds and riverbeds, all now cold and dry. The History of Mars and "Black Beauty" The early history of Mars had its share of dramatic events. According to Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, a probable enormous impact "repaved" much of the surface a hundred million years after it solidified — it was the forces of this impact that created the zircons in NWA 7034. The Lawrence Livermore account also noted that between 1.3 and 1.7 billion years ago, volcanic eruptions reshaped the surface from which NWA 7034 later came. Later still, according to Science, came another massive impact on Mars that knocked "Black Beauty" into space, where it finally collided with Earth and ended up in the Sahara Desert a few thousand years ago. Meanwhile, reported Space.com, Mars lost its oceans, beginning some 4 billion years ago when its planetary magnetic field weakened to the point where it could no longer protect the Martian atmosphere from solar radiation storms. Mars became cold and dry. But all of the water was not lost. As National Geographic noted, other recent Mars discoveries suggest that at least one underground lake still exists on Mars. And where there is liquid water, there might be life.

Africa Yields Clues to the Formation of Mars

River deltas are ecosystems that are rich in life — so rich that many have figured prominently in earthly history, including the Nile Delta and Mississippi Delta, among others. But the ancient river delta discovered in Jezero Crater on Mars is far older than any of Earth's deltas, according to NASA's famed Jet Propulsion Laboratory. This otherworldly delta dates back billions of years ago to a time when Mars, now cold and dry, was warm and wet — and might have harbored life.The Perseverance rover, which landed on Mars early last year as the centerpiece of NASA's Mars 2020 mission, is now exploring the ancient Jezero Crater river delta, looking for evidence of ancient life forms that may have once existed there. The same combination of flowing and standing water that makes earthly river deltas so ecologically productive could also make this one of the most promising locations on Mars to search for life.Drilling DownThe Perseverance rover is aptly named because the search for life on Mars is unlikely to culminate in any one single "aha" moment, as Space.com explains. While a single spectacular discovery (such as an unmistakable fossil) is not impossible, it is much more likely that a great deal of patient spadework will be needed to persuade skeptical scientists. Researchers will demand extraordinary evidence for such an extraordinary discovery as extraterrestrial life — and rightfully soAccordingly, the Perseverance rover was designed for spadework. Its design includes equipment not only for collecting samples and analyzing them but also for storing the most promising samples for a future return to Earth, where the full range of laboratory resources can be brought to bear on them.According to Sky & Telescope, in August and September of 2021, the Perseverance rover passed its first big test, successfully bagging its first samples. An initial attempt went awry, with rock possibly fragmenting when the rover's rotary-percussive drill engaged. A follow-up attempt succeeded in collecting two samples for future examination here on Earth.Things to Do on MarsThe primary mission of the Perseverance rover calls for a great deal of, well, perseverance. But as it drives around on Mars, the mission team has found plenty of other activities for it to take part in. In its first weeks on Mars, the rover itself was a bit upstaged by its sidekick, the drone helicopter Ingenuity, which successfully took to the Martian air.Ingenuity's flights proved so successful that NASA has transitioned its mission from "technology demonstration" to "operational demonstration." In this role, it acts as a scout to assist in guiding Perseverance across the Martian landscape.In March, Perseverance paused on its journey to shoot the first video footage of a solar eclipse on Mars. Phobos, the larger and closer of Mars's two tiny moons, passed across the disk of the sun, as seen from Jezero Crater. According to CNN, Perseverance was there to capture the video. Thanks to the frequent orbits of the close-in moons of Mars, eclipses are a frequent occurrence, and this was not our first image of a solar eclipse on Mars — though it is the first time we got video footage of the event.Because Mars has a significant atmosphere (enough for a drone helicopter), it also has weather. As an additional report in Sky & Telescope explains, the Perseverance rover's weather-station mast has made a wealth of meteorological observations, including footage of powerful dust devils sweeping across the long-dry surface of Jezero Crater. Unfortunately, since the wind sensors in the weather station have to be exposed to measure the wind, they have encountered some damage during the dust storms. But mission engineers have hopes that software tweaks will restore full functionality to the instruments.Return DeliveryMeanwhile, Perseverance is still in the early stages of its mission. Experience with previous rovers suggests that it will retain its capabilities for years to come. And so long as it operates, it can continue to collect samples that a future mission — planned for the 2030s — will collect for return to Earth.For that very mission, a Northrop Grumman team is developing the rocket engine that will carry the return samples up from Mars and send them on their way to Earth, where researchers can fully examine the secrets gathered from Jezero Crater's ancient river delta.Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.

Perseverance Rover Explores an Ancient River Delta on Mars

For millennia, we studied the world without the benefit of a view from orbit. Then, in 1947, a camera flew 100 miles above ground. In an instant, our view expanded by far more than the millions of square miles captured in four black and white frames. The era of studying objects in space via remote sensing continues to this day, with the aid of detailed maps using visual, thermal and chemical data. The blue dunes — constructed images celebrating the Odyssey orbiter's 20th anniversary — demonstrate how remote sensing satellites not only show us the geology of Mars but also allow us to map out future missions there. A Deceivingly Simple Mission At first glance, the Mars Odyssey explorer has a straightforward-sounding mission: to detail the amount and distribution of chemicals and minerals in the Martian surface. To do this, Odyssey first flew 200 days through deep space. Then, since real-time remote control from Earth isn't possible 150 million kilometers (93 million miles) from Earth, it followed pre-written instructions: Slow down from 5.4 km/sec (12,000 mph) to 4.3 km/sec (10,000 mph). Insert into orbit. Photograph the same amount of land as the Earth using three instruments. Find water, if possible, and anything that might have been shaped by water. Look for hydrogen and other chemicals, too. And don't crash. Simple and to the point — but far from easy. Twenty years ago, the imperative to go make a map of Mars came with a high risk of failure. Prior to Odyssey, 30 total missions from the U.S., Russia and Japan attempted to reach Mars. Only 10 managed to return images. Most either exploded on the launch pad, malfunctioned in transit or missed Mars entirely. The two missions immediately prior to Odyssey didn't miss the planet enough. Mars Climate Orbiter and Mars Polar lander were destroyed on arrival. By the time Odyssey came along, NASA needed to stick the Mars landing — not just for the sake of the eponymously named orbiter. When Odyssey successfully took up its survey of the red planet, the Spirit and Opportunity rovers were less than two years from launch. They would be the first Mars rovers since Sojourner in 1996. The maps they would use to land in 2004, made by Mars Global Surveyor (MGS), showed that many surface features seemed to have been made by flowing water, some of which seemed to still be on the move. Gullies were clearly seen changing shape from one year to the next. MGS images also showed boulders the size of houses in some areas. Spirit and Opportunity intended to avoid those as well as smaller obstacles during landing. But for that, they would need better maps. Much better maps. Thanks in part to Odyssey, both Spirit and Opportunity (or Oppy, as the rover came to be called) managed to avoid giant boulders and other calamities. The two rovers went on to exceed their original mission by more than a decade. That time was spent investigating the geology of Mars up close, observing targets picked by Odyssey and MGS scientists as possibly water-made or even water-containing. From 400 km (250 miles) up, Odyssey identified sites of interest not only by physical appearance but also by temperature and what each structure contained. That's where the blue dunes come in. Cold Contrast While not actually blue in any way, shape or form, the false-colored dunes are in fact much colder than the surrounding dunes at Mars' northern polar cap. From an exploration standpoint, that's very interesting. Water ice trapped there wouldn't sublimate as frequently, making these dunes a potential target for finding the much-sought-after stuff of life. Then again, their lower temperatures indicate that the sun doesn't reach there for as long or as often. Robotic explorers counting on solar power might well run out of juice before completing their study. It might take a remote sampling mission like Mars Ingenuity, an explorer powered by something other than sunlight or even a person to find out if these colder dunes hold the substance we've been seeking all over the planet for half a century. The long-term goals of Mars exploration are many and stacked: Find the water and look for life. Extract the water on Mars to make fuel supplies and air. Feed the habitat's plants and people. For our dreams to come to pass, we first have to find a large, accessible supply of water — or, more likely, more than one. Enhanced-color images like the blue dunes highlight changes in geomorphology that guide major decisions about planetary exploration. Given how much we know about Mars today from the cameras mounted on MGS, Mars Odyssey and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, it's amazing to think that the Solar System Exploration Committee argued against sending a mission to Mars with a camera onboard. The reason? In the 1990s, the images gathered from Viking in the 1970s were believed to be good enough for future mission planning. This line of reasoning appears now and again, most recently with the Juno mission to Jupiter. JunoCam, the onboard camera, isn't even listed as a scientific instrument. Image processing from JunoCam has been outsourced to the public. Analysis from JunoCam and the handful of active Mars Orbiters is still taking place at NASA. In the near future, the distant dunes may be colored in by anyone with the curiosity, will and talent to make their mark on Mars exploration. Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are, too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.

The Geology of Mars: How Eyes in the Sky Lead to Boots on the Ground

Key Takeaways  Problem 1: We need a way to get water from subsurface Martian lakes or trapped within ice blocks. Problem 2: We need to build pressurized habitats or change the Red Planet's atmospheric makeup. Problem 3: We ways to protect against electromagnetic radiation, such as creating concrete from Martian soil.Humans have long fantasized about Mars exploration and colonization. That dream could become a reality now that NASA has plans to put astronauts on the Red Planet by 2030. Simply transporting people across the 34 million miles of space that exists between Earth and Mars presents one of the biggest challenges. But upon arrival, humans will have to overcome enormous obstacles to create a life on Mars — a desolate, frigid and inhospitable rock.Water Locked in Rocks and SandWater is essential to human life on Mars, but the Red Planet doesn't contain water — or does it? Evidence dating back to the 1970s says otherwise. When the Mariner 9 and Viking space probes first sent images of Mars back to Earth, there were signs of water.Some of the most recent clues come from researchers at the National Institute for Astrophysics in Italy. In 2018, they published a study in Science reporting that they had found a lake about 12 miles across and hidden about a mile below the south pole of Mars. In the same year, scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey said they'd found eight regions on Mars where erosion had uncovered large cross sections of ice deposits between one and 100 meters below the planet's surface. A year later, scientists analyzing data from NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter said they located layers of ice and sand buried a mile beneath Mars's north pole, reports the American Geophysical Union.The technology to extract water locked in Martian soil doesn't exist yet, but NASA hopes to bridge that gap through its Mars Ice Challenge, an annual competition aimed at university engineering students. Ten finalists are selected to compete at Langley Research Center in Virginia, where they show off their prototypes designed to retrieve water from simulated Martian subsurface ice. A team from West Virginia University won the 2019 competition for their prototype, called Mountaineer Ice Drilling Automated System III, which was able to identify, map and drill through a variety of rocky and icy layers and then extract water from an ice block.NASA has also formed partnerships — including a partnership with the Australia Space Agency — to advance mining technologies for use in space. And in July 2019, NASA along with the University of Central Florida and Honeybee Robotics showed off a prototype spacecraft the size of a microwave oven called The World is Not Enough (WINE). It's designed to mine soil on asteroids, extract water from the soil and use it to generate steam to propel itself to its next mining target. The technology could be adapted to harvest water for Mars exploration.Thin AtmosphereOne of the most important attributes a planet needs to support human life is an atmosphere. Unfortunately, a very thin one clings to Mars and it's made up of all the wrong gases.According to NASA, our neighbor's atmosphere: Is mostly composed of carbon dioxide (95.3% compared to less than 1% on Earth). Has barely any oxygen (0.13% compared to 21% on Earth), which humans need to breathe. Contains very little nitrogen (2.7% compared to 78% on Earth), which plants need to survive.Life on Mars would be impossible without a hefty supply of air.On top of that, the atmospheric pressure on Mars is quite low — just 6.1 millibars compared to Earth's 1,013.25 millibars. Pressure is critical to life on Earth. Without it, tiny pockets of air trapped inside a person's body would expand. Eardrums would rupture and water in the body would boil, according to the Institute of Physics. Astronauts wear pressurized suits to survive in space, and they'd have to wear them on Mars, too, or live in a pressurized habitat.The thin atmosphere lets any heat from the sun escape into space. As a result, Mars is very cold with temperatures that dip to as low as -285 degrees Fahrenheit, according to NASA.People have proposed engineering an atmosphere on Mars that would produce the necessary gases and warm the planet. So-called terraforming involves stimulating greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and water vapor, that already exist on the planet to rise into the air. But a 2018 study in Nature Astronomy found that the planet did not have enough of these elements to create an atmosphere that would sustain human life on Mars. For the time being, astronauts traveling there will need to bring all of the life-supporting systems with them.High Levels of RadiationHarmful radiation permeates the cosmos. Our sun and other stars are essentially fusion reactors that spew abundant amounts of electromagnetic energy, including X-ray and ultraviolet radiation. The sun, as well as other intensively energetic objects like quasars or the center of galaxies, also emit high-energy protons, atomic nuclei and other particles that can cause radiation sickness, adversely affect a person's central nervous system, increase one's lifetime risk for cancer and cause degenerative diseases.Our planet's strong magnetic field forms an invisible barrier against such radiation and diverts most of these electrically charged atomic fragments back into space. Any strays are absorbed by our planet's thick atmosphere. Astronauts outside this protective bubble are at risk. On a mission to Mars, they could receive radiation doses up to 700 times higher than on Earth, reports the European Space Agency (ESA).The agency is taking steps on Earth to build technologies that mitigate that exposure to radiation. They're working with particle accelerator labs to recreate the dangerous amounts of cosmic radiation found in space and build and test shields that can protect against it. They have also planned to send radiation sensors on NASA's upcoming Orion test launch to track exposure during the mission to the moon.And what about radiation on Mars itself? Astronauts onboard the International Space Station recently conducted an experiment that showed they could successfully mix cement in microgravity, reports Astronomy. The idea is that one day people could use Martian soil to build habitable structures from concrete, a sturdy, protective material already used on Earth at nuclear facilities to shield people from radiation on Mars.Future Mars exploration missions will present scientists and astronauts alike with a host of problem that will challenge human survival. Accessing water, dealing with a frigid planet that lacks oxygen and coping with dangerous levels of radiation are among the biggest hurdles to overcome. But as humans persists toward the moon with an eye on Mars, they will learn to adapt, as they always have, and find new solutions to the problems facing them over the next horizon.Making the most of Mars means mapping more of the Red Planet — see how Northrop Grumman's LN-200S IMU helps Mars Rovers get where they're going.

Mars Exploration? 3 Problems Science Needs to Solve First

On April 6, 2019, the Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS) instrument on NASA's Mars Insight Lander recorded a phenomenon never observed, even since the agency's Viking spacecraft began exploring the Red Planet 45 years ago: a trembling of the ground emanating, it appeared, from deep inside Mars. Since then, more than 480 such seismic events have been recorded. That first "marsquake" was estimated to have a magnitude between 1 to 2, a level barely detectable on seismometers on Earth. In the words of Bruce Banerdt, Insight Principal Investigator of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, it marked "the beginning of a new field: martian seismology." Hitting the Ground Listening Developed by the French space agency Centre National d'é‰tudes Spatiales, Insight's SEIS instrument is designed to sense vibrations caused by marsquakes and Martian weather systems such as dust storms. It's also the first seismometer to be deployed directly on the Martian surface. The earlier Viking 1 and 2 seismometers were mounted on top of their lander's equipment bay, which made them vulnerable to noise caused by the wind, reducing their sensitivity by three orders of magnitude. SEIS's innovative technology includes several insulating barriers, including a dome-shaped wind and thermal shield, to protect it from Mars' extreme temperatures and high winds. Insight's Marsquake Service Team, which is led by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zé¼rich), reviews and analyzes SEIS data about twice per day to learn more about Mars' geology. According to an ETH Zé¼rich news report, the Martian surface is very quiet seismically. But during the day, strong winds shake the Lander and its instrumentation, which creates vibration and a high level of ambient noise. This noise effectively drowns out faint seismic signals from marsquakes. Then, during evening hours after the winds have died down, the innovative technology of the SEIS instrument — ETH Zé¼rich calls it "arguably the most sensitive seismometer ever operated" — allows it to detect and record Mars' faintest seismic signals. Unraveling the Waves On Earth, quakes occur on fault lines created by the movement of adjacent tectonic plates. The Red Planet, however, does not have tectonic plates. Scientists believe that marsquakes are caused primarily by the cooling and contraction of Mars, which creates stress, as ETH Zé¼rich reports. Over time, this stress builds up until it's strong enough to break the crust, resulting in marsquakes. The SEIS scientists point out that marsquakes, like earthquakes, generate two types of seismic waves: fast-moving P- (primary) waves and slower-moving S- (secondary) waves. When P-waves travel through a planet and encounter a discontinuity in materials (think interface between a solid mantle and a liquid core), they can be reflected back to their source, change direction or even change into a slower-moving S-wave. By analyzing the arrival times of different types of seismic waves at the Insight lander's location, seismologists can gain valuable insight into Mars' geology, including the location, depth, thickness and composition of its internal layers. Following the Science To date, as Nature magazine reports, the SEIS instrument has measured two types of marsquakes. The most common type shakes the ground at high frequencies and is linked to fractures of the shallow Martian crust. The less common type is characterized by low-frequency vibrations and appears to emanate from sources within Mars' mantle. The February 2020 analysis by seismologists at ETH Zé¼rich revealed that of 174 registered marsquakes, 24 could be considered low-frequency events with magnitudes between 3 and 4, with seismic waves propagating through the Martian mantle. The two largest of these appeared to emanate from the tectonically active zone of Mars known as Cerburus Fossae. The other 150 quakes had even smaller magnitudes and high-frequency waves trapped in the Martian crust. As Nature magazine highlights, the analysis of these seismic waves have led the ETH Zé¼rich seismologists to conclude that the upper 8 to 11 kilometers of the Martian crust beneath the Insight lander is fractured or highly altered. They are still investigating composition of the mantle. The ETH Zé¼rich team has also observed that marsquakes are much different from earthquakes in their duration. Instead of the 10 to 30 seconds typical for earthquakes, marsquakes appear to last for 10 to 20 minutes. The scientists are still investigating the reasons behind this dramatic difference. Adding Momentum To date, according to NASA, the Insight mission has "produced exceptional science." As a result, the agency has extended the Lander's mission for another two years, through December 2022. This extension will give the Lander's instruments more time to monitor and measure marsquakes and weather phenomena on the Martian surface. According to NASA, between now and the summer of 2021, the Insight science team will be operating the Lander's key instruments in a power conservation mode. This strategy reflects the onset of the Martian winter, when the already faint sunlight on the Red Planet's surface will become even fainter and the dust accumulation on Insight's solar panels — which has reduced their output power to just 27% of their "dust-free" capacity — will increase. NASA mission planners had hoped that small dust storms near the Lander would periodically clean off its solar panels, but to date, that has not happened. The Insight team plans to resume full science operations in July when Mars begins approaching the Sun again. Weather and astronomical issues notwithstanding, NASA scientists are looking forward to continuing Insight's very productive science mission on Mars, making new discoveries and even adding momentum to human dreams to one day explore and colonize the Red Planet. Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are, too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.

First Marsquake Launches Field of Martian Seismology

It's not a bird or a plane: It's a semi-autonomous space helicopter. On April 19, 2021, the short-range Mars helicopter Ingenuity took off for the first time. As a powered flight being guided over the surface of another planet, Ingenuity was a much-anticipated exploration milestone. While the landing was soft, safe and by most accounts spectacular, Ingenuity's evolution from futuristic concept to a flight-ready vehicle strapped to the belly of a Mars rover was anything but easy. In fact, the many bumps, blips and pockets of turbulence encountered by the space helicopter over its 20-year journey to being launched reads more like the Wright Brothers' run down the dunes of Kitty Hawk than most people know. Flight of Infancy As is often the case with invention, the Mars helicopter Ingenuity was a slow-growing idea. JPL engineer Bob Balaram read the 1999 "mesicopter" proposal to NASA's Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) and was inspired to design one for Mars. He sought out a partnership with Stanford University and private aerospace company AeroVironment. Together, they built prototype space helicopter blades. Fifteen years later, when JPL director Charles Elachi requested proposals for Mars-exploring drones and helicopters, Balaram dusted off his rotors and got to work. Small but Mighty Like the Mars Skycrane, the space helicopter is part technology demonstration — something that had never been tried in the field and could only be partially tested before deployment. As a demonstration of technology, Ingenuity earned its name from start to finish. Very few robots that make it to Mars are this small. That's not for lack of trying, mind you. Less is more when it comes to launching mass at high speed. However, until Ingenuity, no one had successfully jammed space-worthy navigation, telecommunication, cameras and sensor arrays — not to mention batteries and heaters — into a flying box. A generation after the original NIAC mesicopter proposal, miniaturization made this feat possible. Ingenuity, which weighs far less than most human children at birth, can lift off Mars using the power budget of a few 100-watt bulbs. As NASA notes, because it is so light, all the necessary power can be generated by a single solar panel perched above the rotors, which charges six lithium ion batteries. It's Flight, Jim, but Not as We Know It Part of the reason Ingenuity can alight so easily is that Mars has less gravity than Earth. That would be great news for flying fans if Mars also had Earth's thick atmosphere. Unfortunately for space helicopters, the Martian atmosphere is scant at 1/100th of the air pressure at our sea level, as NASA points out. For things that like to take off and land, the key to success on the red planet is to go big — or more specifically, to go wide. To help them catch enough air to slow down, Perseverance and Curiosity both had large-diameter parachuting systems. For its size (14 centimeters by 16 cm by 20 cm), Ingenuity has huge rotor blades. They extend 60 cm from the center for a total length of 1.2 meters each. That's a lot of blade for a little body. They are also double-layered and rotate in opposite directions, giving the helicopter both stability and control. Stiff blades and spinning rotors are an Ingenuity special design, flying in the face of Earth helicopters. To keep weight at a minimum, the propeller blades are made of foam at their core. A carbon fiber coating holds each blade together while keeping them light. The coating also makes them very stiff. Here, our helicopter blades sag when the vehicle is not in flight. We get away with that here because a floppy blade cutting quickly through Earth air will straighten out, like a whip. Martian wind wouldn't straighten a flag, much less a helicopter blade. Large, stiff blades solve some of the flight challenges for a Martian helicopter, but not all. Even when the blades were holding their shapes, the batteries were charged and the vehicle weighed less than four American footballs, there was still the problem of how to generate thrust to pull enough air through the blades to hover the helicopter off the ground. In a very real way, "spin fast, go faster" is another Wright brothers invention. For the propellers on their flights, the brothers used thin, long pieces of twisted wood, as NASA reports. They placed two of these behind the wings of their aircraft, spinning them fast — 350 times a minute — to create a pressure difference from the front to the back. The pressure difference pulled air through the plane and created the thrust they needed to travel hundreds of feet over the dunes that first day. Using that principle, Ingenuity can still launch, even with 1/100 an atmosphere to bite into — if its blades rotate faster. By rotating more than 2,400 times a minute, 10 times faster than helicopter blades on Earth, Ingenuity pulls through enough Martian atmosphere to support its 90-second flights. If it rotated any slower, the space helicopter wouldn't get off the ground. Any faster, Ingenuity cold come close to breaking the Martian sound barrier. That barrier is lower because of the thinner atmosphere. Such a sonic boom would be quite an earful for Perseverance, which, like any helicopter parent, is never far away. On April 30th, JPL scientists recorded the sound of Ingenuity's blades and rotors: a steady hum against the background of fine dust shifting over the flat Martian plane that's come to be known as Wright field. Collect Calls The physical ability of a vehicle to get off the ground is just one of several keys to a successful flight. Piloting the craft — not crashing, and heading in the right direction — is also important. In the case of robotic exploration, there's the collected observations to relay back to base. How can we give Ingenuity, or any small vehicle, the power for communication and navigation without weighing it down with heavy transmitters and big batteries? Part of the solution was to give Ingenuity the power to make some of its own decisions. The first interplanetary helicopter flies and lands on its own, sends transmissions, moderates its own energy supply and keeps itself warm through the bitter Martian days and nights, according to NASA. The other part of the solution was to treat it like any valued explorer by making sure it was never completely alone. Like Wilbur Wright racing along on foot while Orville made that first flight, Perseverance serves as Ingenuity's communication relay. The Mars rover, which cradled the helicopter under a dust shield for the better part of a year, transmits instructions from the pilots back on Earth. It also sends Ingenuity's photos and weather data back. In the end, Ingenuity can fly for up to 90 seconds for distances of up to 300 meters, per NASA. Future Mars helicopters will likely travel further afield, stay aloft longer and take more detailed observations, aiding human and robotic explorers alike in their quest to find water, life and each other. One Small Hover for a Robot, One Giant Leap for Science More than 117 years after Orville and Wilbur Wright lifted humankind off the ground with wings and propellers, a 1.8 kg space helicopter carried us even closer to becoming a true interplanetary species. The ability to fly — really fly — a vehicle semi-autonomously from hundreds of millions of kilometers away has a huge impact on our ability to plan space missions — not just to Mars, but to Venus, Europa, Titan and anywhere a small, highly mobile craft would be an asset (i.e. basically everywhere). The deep-space, remote piloting skills we're learning don't stop at helicopters, either. They apply to drones, submarines and even entire launch vehicles. The proposed Mars sample return mission, slated to be launched in 2026, will feature many more new and as-yet untested technologies. Chief among those will be another first flight: this time, the Mars Ascent Vehicle (MAV). Using solid propulsion instead of solar power, the MAV will bring the Martian soil collected by Perseverance back to Earth. Planetary scientists will interrogate those samples for the possibility of life on Mars, so we can protect ourselves from it and it from us. They'll use what they find to develop methods of water extraction and plant growth to see what sort of future we can create from the building blocks of another world. With five flights over 30 days, Ingenuity proved that bold, transformative technologies can be built for environments far, far away — and in spite of never having been there before, can hit the ground running. Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are, too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.

Mars Helicopter Ingenuity: Space Exploration Unplugged

The last manned moon landing happened in 1972; humans haven't set foot on Earth's natural satellite for almost 45 years. Now, public agencies like NASA and private firms have announced plans for near-term, manned missions to Mars while the new federal administration pushes for travel to the moon. Which one is worth championing as mankind's next "giant leap?" Lunar Legacy Two years ago, NASA unveiled a proposal to shift away from Near Earth Objects to the Red Planet. As noted by Universe Today, NASA administrator Charlie Bolden responded "been there, done that" when asked about further moon exploration, a sentiment that matches popular opinion: The moon is a dry, dusty boring rock that doesn't offer anything unique or interesting. But is the moon really "been there, done that?" Maybe not.    Consider that we've mapped just 5 percent of the moon's surface, and the Apollo mission astronauts didn't stray far from their landing craft — the movements of Apollo 11's crew could fit into a regulation-size soccer field, the article explained. And while 2010 was a low point for lunar exploration when the Obama administration turfed the Constellation program, other space agencies continued to investigate Earth's nearest neighbor and discovered traces of water. According to National Geographic, further analysis of volcanic "glass beads" brought back by the Apollo missions and the discovery of widespread volcanic deposits suggests that there's a significant amount of water trapped under the moon's surface — some estimates suggest that liberating this water would produce a one-yard-deep (0.91-meter) ocean covering the moon's surface. In addition, volatile compounds were discovered at the lunar poles held there by "cold traps," while the moon environment itself offers the chance to test out new space suit, habitat and research technologies. Getting Ready   While NASA may be focused on Mars, other space agencies and private companies are preparing humans to live on the moon. As noted by Tech Crunch, volunteers at China's premier aeronautics university will live in a sealed, controlled environment for 200 days to simulate a lunar habitat. China was the third country to successfully complete a lunar "soft landing" and plans to put humans on the surface of the moon in 15 to 20 years. According to the European Space Agency, it is also testing out potential habitats to examine the impact of lighting changes on astronauts' circadian rhythms and abilities to function in a non-earth environment. Red Planet or Constant Companion?   So what's the best bet for mankind's next giant leap?   Mars is absolutely the "stretch goal" here — the stuff-of-dreams red planet that comes with potential discoveries of ancient life and could offer a viable "second Earth" scenario. But it comes with big challenges: At its closest, Mars is still around 35 million miles from Earth, meaning the trip takes at least six months using cutting-edge technology. And depending on the planet's position, communication with Earth could take anywhere from three to 22 minutes one-way, while dust storms could play havoc with machinery and communications. In an interview with New Scientist, social-media savvy astronaut Chris Hadfield explained that the moon is our best option largely because we've been there before and can control many of the variables, improving the chance of success.   Ultimately, the case for the moon comes down to three key benefits:    Science - From exploration of the surface to mapping the poles and obtaining more samples of lunar rock and regolith, there's "good science" to be done on the moon, according to Mike Seibert of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Commercialization - Space tourism is just the start. The moon offers viable mining, machinery and eventually housing opportunities.  Technology - We need to develop technologies that allow humans to live off-planet indefinitely. Iteration and innovation can happen quickly when the moon is just a three-day trip; on Mars this simply isn't possible.   A trip to Mars? Or travel to the moon? It doesn't have to be either/or — but shooting for the moon offers the biggest short-term benefit. Image Credit: Pixabay 

Travel to the Moon or Mars: The Case for Humanity's Next "Giant Leap"

Every planet has a past. Earth's geologic history lives in layers, shifting beneath mountain peaks and fallen forests, retreating rivers and rising seas. While we dig for evidence of where we came from, the forces that formed our world billions of years ago continue to churn, burn and make themselves known. With every volcanic blast and earthquake, we understand more about our planet.   In the spirit of discovery, researchers have longed to carry out seismic studies on other planets. However, the opportunity to answer fundamental questions, like, "Are there earthquakes on Mars?", or marsquakes, was rare — until recently.   Looking Into Mars' Layers   True to its name, since it arrived on the scene, the Mars InSight lander has been literally looking into what's going on inside the fourth planet from the sun. InSight is short for Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport. It arrived on Mars in a neatly packed, 789-pound (358-kilogram) bundle on November 26, 2018. The landing site near Elysium Mons is known for landslides, evidence of which can be seen from orbit, and two long, shallow trenches around 1,000 kilometers long.  On Earth, such enormous formations are usually caused by geologic activity. Abundant evidence gathered from spacecraft, as well as ground-based telescopes, points to Mars being geologically active in its distant past. Mars is, after all, home to the largest known volcano in the solar system. Soil samples collected by robotic explorers indicate that Martian volcanoes were active as recently as 180 millions years ago — a blink of an eye in geologic time.   The question is: Is Mars still active, with a beating planet heart somewhere beneath the swirling dust and broken, dry lake beds? Are there earthquakes on Mars? Is the core molten or silent and dead?   The answer is yes to all of the above. Geologically speaking, the fourth planet from the sun is very much alive and kicking. Marsquakes rock the surface, subsurface and deep interior of our planetary neighbor. These quakes, while they may appear similar to earthquakes, are motivated by slightly different forces.   Earthquakes vs. Marsquakes   Earthquakes occur as our tectonic plates float on the mantle, colliding and slipping past each other. Quakes on Mars are a result of the entire planet contracting as it cools from its initial formation more than four billion years ago.  It's also believed that, though there is no spinning dynamo in Mars' heart to generate a planet-wide magnetic field, magma exists beneath the surface. When the magma moves upward, it creates pressure that pulses through the surface in the form of seismic waves. This form of magmatism can create pressure waves detectable by InSight's external seismometer, the Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS), the first of its kind to reside in the open on the surface of another planet.   What We've Learned   The moving and shaking going on beneath Mars' breathtaking landscape in the last year has taught us much about the planet's past and present. In July 2021, multiple marsquakes of different sizes allowed planetary scientists to accurately gauge that the core of Mars may still be molten. The scientists running the InSight project have also noticed more quakes happen on the night side of the planet, when cooler temperatures make it easier for the ground to contract. Then, on September 18, a quake larger and longer than any felt before rolled right into SEIS.   SEIS supposedly can hear the tiniest movements, including the shaking of a hydrogen atom. Hearing so exquisitely sensitive has been hardly necessary during this mission. As it turns out, Mars has plenty of high-volume activity, even without the marsquakes. Meteorite strikes, wind, dust devils and landslides all make sounds that SEIS can detect and send back to Earth. Then, as if in celebration of InSight's 1,000th Sol on Mars, a marsquake not only occurred during the day but also lasted for a full hour and a half.   At magnitude 4.2 on the Richter scale, the September event was one of three marsquakes over 4.0 detected since the beginning of August 2021. This quake was unlike many others InSight has detected since 2018. It didn't come from Cerberus Fossae, home of the two mysterious rifts in the Martian soil that made it seem likely that Mars was still geologically active. It didn't come from Elysium Planitia, where InSight is permanently parked. Instead, it came from far away, possibly as far as Valles Marineris, on the other side of the planet. Quakes that pass through an entire planet can provide an unparalleled look into what a world is made of: core, mantle, crust and all the layers in-between.   "Are there earthquakes on Mars?" was answered definitely when InSight detected its first quake on April 6, 2019. Between then and now, all the moving and shaking has allowed humankind to confirm the depth of Mars' crust, the size of its mantle (969 miles/1,560 kilometers below the surface) and the size of its molten core. Compared to how many decades it took us to measure the Moon's core (four) and the Earth's core (dozens), it seems as though humanity's insight into planetary science has taken a giant, if shaky, leap forward.   Interested in all things outer space and exploration? We are, too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.  

Rocking and Rolling: Mega Marsquakes Shake Up Planetary Science

Beyond M&Ms, space espresso and astronaut ice cream, a lot of work remains when it comes to securing nutrition in space. Knowing how to cultivate, culture and cycle consumable nutrients will be necessary for humans to successfully settle deep space. And it might be helpful for feeding hungry mouths on our home planet, too. As our planetary next-door neighbor, farming on Mars seems like a natural starting point to investigate. However, such lofty field goals are not without their obstacles. Many resource-finding challenges are in store for future Terran transplants, including locating water and nutrients, removing toxins and, perhaps most ironically, finding room to grow. On Earth and off it, one of the biggest obstacles to farming is space itself. Growing Up On Earth, the traditional method for tackling lack of space is to build terraced farms. More recently, Closed Environment Agriculture (CEA) has taken root. In 2018, Aerofarms in New Jersey claimed to grow 2 million pounds of greens annually without sun or soil in a vertically stacked system, as CNN reports. Water usage in that vertical farming project, housed in an old steel mill, was reportedly 95% less than conventional, ground-based Earth farming. Vertical farming is a great example of technology transfer, from up to down in this case. NASA started growing plants in space without soil or water in 1997. Starting from either cuttings or seeds, plants engineered to grow rapidly are misted with liquid nutrients. Plants grown by aeroculture appear to take up more nutrients. Without gravity to hold them down, they also grow faster — in the case of tomato plants, more than twice as fast. Small, inflatable aeroponic food systems can grow more than 1,000 bunches of vegetables in less than a month, as NASA reports. Farming microbes might also be a necessary way to bulk up the nutritional and caloric content of space diets for every life form on a Mars mission. People aren't the only ones who munch on microbes for their health. Plants, do, too! Adding microbes is a critical step toward making Martian regolith — a term used to describe sterile material — into a plant-friendly growth medium, as Utah State University notes. But before we add nutrients to non-living Mars dust, turn it into soil and start farming on Mars, we'll need to make sure we remove the poison. The Poison and the (Microscopic) Cure That poison comes in the form of chlorine atoms connected to four oxygen atoms, a.k.a. perchlorates. These compounds are produced by living organisms as well as inorganic processes. On Earth, they are found in many places, including the groundwater near NASA JPL. On Mars, the Curiosity Rover picked them up, literally, while looking for signs of organic life in the regolith, according to NASA. With some tinkering, perchlorates can be turned into explosives, fertilizer or fireworks, according to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. But on their own, perchlorates are highly toxic to people. Perchlorates in the regolith are by no means an intractable farming problem — quite the opposite. In space, wasting is not an option. Perchlorates could be used to feed microbes or power rocket engines and mining equipment. Future Martian farmers don't necessarily need to eliminate the perchlorates; they just need to collect and extract them. Plus, if perchlorates are fed to microbes, they'll produce a super-helpful compound for humans living in space: oxygen. To Farm or Terraform None of these methods for farming on Mars rise to the level of "terraforming" Mars: making it similar to Earth. Transformation on that scale could only occur if the entire planet were shielded from the solar wind. Allowing Mars' atmosphere to grow, the air pressure to rise and water to remain on the surface in liquid form would require a magnetic field on the scale of our own magnetosphere. According to Phys.org, NASA computer modeling indicates that, with a truly enormous shield in place — plus several hundred million years of waiting — the planet would warm, the polar caps would melt, and the atmosphere would grow enough for terraforming Mars to take place en masse. Fortunately, our efforts at space agriculture and settlement need not wait that long. Farming in enclosed environments, on Earth and in space, has been happening successfully for decades. The options for us to begin the process in deep space include sending food-growing systems in advance of the mission and finding ways to use the resources available once we arrive. Given how many calories humans require, we probably need to use both strategies at once. Today's Martian regolith needs a little love to become soil, but as ScienceNews points out, with the help of multivitamins, minerals, microbes, perchlorates removal, air pressure and radiation shielding, that may not remain true for long. Human mastery of genetics is growing. It is increasingly possible for us to engineer life forms — such as those living on the outside of the International Space Station — that find the current surface of Mars appealing. Even without terraforming Mars, we might be able to raise plants that will, with the right encouragement, take root in the new earth. Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are, too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.

Roots in the Sky: An Astronaut's Guide to Farming on Mars

 Mars has always captured the human imagination, and people have long dreamed of ways of getting there. The first technically plausible Mars exploration mission concept was Wernher von Braun's Das Marsprojekt, or The Mars Project, developed in the early 1950s. Many mission architectures have been studied and proposed since then. In 2016, SpaceX's Elon Musk unveiled a grand vision for Mars colonization, using the company's Interplanetary Transport System (ITS) concept.     Enable targeting cookies to view this content.    It's All About Propulsion    A critical factor in getting people to Mars is speed. Humans need to get there as fast as possible to streamline mission logistics and minimize exposure to hazards along the way. In the near term, conventional chemical rocket propulsion can reasonably get the job done. NASA is planning to get us to Mars in the 2030s using an architecture based on the Space Launch System and Orion crewed spacecraft, both currently in development. But some consider chemical propulsion too slow and inefficient, advocating instead the use of more exotic rocket propulsion methods such as nuclear thermal rockets and various types of ion thrusters (which powered the fictional Hermes spacecraft in Andy Weir's novel, "The Martian"). These and many other propulsion concepts are being studied but will require further development before they are mature propulsion-technology options for human spaceflight.    To achieve the goal of colonization, unlike with previous lunar missions, it is essential to think in terms of building a sustainable transportation architecture. The Apollo program was much like an X-plane project, designed to achieve the lunar landing goal, but not to establish a reliable and enduring transportation infrastructure.    We can't afford to do that with Mars. Realistic Mars exploration and colonization plans must go beyond the transportation problem, and they have evolved to keep pace with technological developments. Early plans assumed everything needed would be carried to Mars from Earth, which doesn't make practical or economic sense. Mission plans such as Mars Direct, an influential plan developed by Dr. Robert Zubrin in the 1990s, pioneered the idea of in-situ resource utilization or living off the land. This idea has matured with evolving Mars exploration plans, incorporating recent technological advances such as 3-D printing, which could be used to meet needs such as base/habitat construction and spare-part fabrication.    Radiation, Gravity and Human Survival     Despite the human experience in space to date, the long-term biological effects of radiation and reduced gravity exposure are largely unknown. Astronaut Scott Kelly recently spent a year on the ISS, and by running tests comparing him to his twin brother on returning to Earth, he provided invaluable data on human health in a microgravity environment.  [skyword_iframe src="//www.youtube.com/embed/OL9cpxuN7NY" height="315" width="560" ]   But humans have never spent a significant amount of time in a reduced-gravity field. The surface gravity on Mars is only about 38 percent of Earth's gravity, and the long-term effects of living in such an environment are unknown. The ISS is largely protected from cosmic radiation by the Earth's magnetosphere, a luxury that will not be afforded to Mars-bound travelers and colonists. Various radiation-shielding techniques are being explored and will require considerable development to provide adequate protection for long-duration human spaceflight.    Given the difficulty, expense and long duration of travel between Earth and Mars, the successful human colonization of Mars will require the creation of an independent self-sustaining biosphere. This is something that has yet to be demonstrated even on Earth. The Biosphere 2 project attempted to do this in the 1990s and failed. NASA conducts a variety of analog missions on Earth to address these challenges facing future Mars colonists.    The Human—Robotic Partnership    The ultimate success of human Mars exploration and colonization still depends on learning more about the red planet through robotic precursor missions. NASA's robotic Mars program has been spectacularly successful, but the existing Mars fleet is aging. New missions such as the Mars 2020 Rover are in the pipeline to replace them. A number of companies — including Northrop Grumman, the prime contractor for NASA's James Webb Space Telescope — are conducting concept studies for a potential future Mars orbiter mission. When humans are finally on their way to Mars, the human—robotic partnership will continue to play an important role. In addition to the direct support of human exploration, robot systems will be essential to the future Martian technological infrastructure, such as planetary communications and a GPS-like navigation network.  

Mars Exploration: Getting There and Staying There

Mars is getting a lot of media coverage lately. From NASA's latest launch to talks of a Red Planet settlement, there's growing interest in space travel to Mars and what it could mean for humanity as a whole. Setting questions of logistics and legality aside, if we really could colonize Mars, what would a fun day out look like on the fourth rock from the sun? Here's a speculative sightseeing itinerary for your first Red Planet road trip. Laying the Groundwork If you're road tripping on the Red Planet, you can't just hop in a tour bus and hit the road. Lower Martian gravity — coming in at just 37% of Earth's pull — means uneven terrain and hilly regions would pose more of a problem than they would in familiar 1-g territory. Dust may also be a problem, assuming we haven't entirely terraformed Mars by the time of your excursion. Any sightseeing vehicle would need the ability to keep dust out and deal with any particulate matter that makes its way into critical components. Finally, you'll either need self-enclosed transport that provides breathable oxygen or a reliable spacesuit to keep yourself from suffocating in the planet's minimal atmosphere. And on Your Left... With these essentials squared away, the tour can get started. First stop: the landing site. This would almost certainly be the least exciting part of your tour. As Matt Golombek of NASA's Jet Propulsion Lab puts it, any great landing site for space travel to Mars will be a "smooth, flat, boring place." It makes sense, since flat and wide-open landing zones make it easier to safely set down spacecraft and reduce the risk of something going wrong. Consider NASA's latest rover, Perseverance, which will touch down on Mars in February 2021. Its planned landing site is Jezero crater, which is just north of the equator and 28 miles in diameter. This area was likely once flooded with liquid water, and it may contain evidence of ancient organic matter. After a quick spin around the colony landing zone, it's time to hit the biggest tourist attractions on Mars, including:   Olympus Mons — "Big" is the operative word here. This shield volcano is the size of Arizona and three times taller than Mount Everest, coming in at 16 miles (25.75 km) high. Because the mountain has a side slope of just five degrees, hands-on tourist groups could climb to the summit and see the 53-mile wide depression caused by magma draining out of ancient rocky chambers.  Valles Marineris — Mars also boasts the biggest valley in our solar system, the valles marineris. It's four times the length of the Grand Canyon, and it was likely formed thanks to substantial volcanic activity in the Red Planet's Tharsis region.  Medusae Fossae — Wind-sculpted rocks in this region have given rise to speculation about ancient Martian aliens. While the more plausible explanation is volcanic eruptions followed by substantial weathering over time, this is still a can't-miss stop for any tour.  The North and South Poles — For more extreme Martian adventurers, polar trips could prove popular. Thanks to the planet's thin atmosphere, temperatures at the poles drop to a frigid minus 195 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter, which is cold enough to condense airborne carbon dioxide into ice. In the summer, the planet's north pole gets warm enough to sublimate this CO, creating a more familiar water ice cap.  The Undiscovered Country All aboard for the magical mystery tour! While digital topographical mapping of Mars is complete, robotic rovers have only visited a small portion of the Red Planet's points of interest. One region that has yet to be explored fully is Cydonia, which contains "the Face on Mars." Pictures of this landform were originally captured on April 8th, 2001 by the Mars Global Surveyor, and sharp-eyed observers quickly noted its resemblance to a human face. While this structure is almost certainly of natural origin, exploration trips to Cydonia could be a big draw for Martian tourist companies. Another option is Martian cave diving. As Scientific American notes, surface imaging has identified more than 1,000 caves in the Tharsis Bulge region that may be good candidates for human colonies due to their width, depth and access to lava tube "skylights" — or they might contain evidence of unknown alien civilizations. Either way, this would be a memorable trip. No Refunds The notion of people going to Mars has long captured the imagination of governments and private businesses alike. Some ambitious entrepreneurs are even selling Mars "land deeds," which are great novelty gifts with zero legal value. However, it's worth noting that, for the first nouveau-Martians, the trip will almost certainly be one-way. Even if crews make it to the surface of Mars and set up colonies without any accidental loss of life, Mars landings aren't exactly known for their soft touch. Any spacecraft that lands on the planet would likely take substantial damage on impact and then be purposely cannibalized for parts to help build a new human future on the Red Planet. For the first people going to Mars, it seems there will be no refunds and no returns, but these Martian explorers could help lay the foundation for one of humanity's greatest achievements: a self-sustaining off-world habitat. And who knows — in fifty years you might be able to book a quick ride on the Earth-to-Mars express and reserve your spot in a rollicking Red Planet road trip.

Red Planet Road Trip: Space Travel to Mars Meets Speculative Sightseeing

New space discoveries in 2018 helped scientists understand some of the mysteries of our ever-expanding universe. Astronomers witnessed the death of a star, discovered clusters of black holes and the absence of dark matter, while robots explored Mars. Several exciting new missions launched that will continue into 2019, and work continues on future missions, such as the James Webb Space Telescope. Five discoveries stand out as contributing to a deeper understanding of space.   Evidence for Thousands of Black Holes at Center of Milky Way   Columbia University researchers detected a dozen black holes surrounding the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way. This new evidence supports the theory that the supermassive black hole, called Sagittarius A*, is actually surrounded by roughly 10,000 other isolated black holes plus as many as 500 black holes paired with stars, according to Science Daily. The researchers examined archival data from a NASA telescope known as the Chandra X-ray Observatory and searched for faint but consistent X-ray signatures that can indicate black holes. This new study confirms a theory about gravitational waves, helps scientists understand how large black holes interact with smaller ones and suggests that similar black hole clusters exist in the centers of most galaxies. NASA announced, "This recent analysis using Chandra data is the first observational evidence for such a black hole bounty."   The Death of a Zombie Star    Scientists already have a strong understanding of what happens when a star dies and how supernovas work, but in 2018, astronomers discovered that iPTF14hls appears to have died and come back to life multiple times. What's going on with this so-called zombie star? Normally, when a star dies, it emits a bright light for a short period of time while imploding during a supernova event. But, according to Space.com, even though iPTF14hls seemed like it died about 60 years ago, it now appears to be pulsing, with a brighter-than-normal supernova.   A New Galaxy With No Apparent Dark Matter   Most of the material in the universe is dark matter, but a Milky Way-sized galaxy named NGC 1052-DF2 seems to be missing this essential ingredient for a galaxy. Astrophysicist Alberto Conti of Northrop Grumman explained, "'In astronomy, if we don't know what something is, we call it 'dark.'" According to Science Daily, NGC 1052-DF2 only has 1/400th of the expected amount of dark matter, which remains a mystery to scientists.   Detecting the Oldest Stars in the Universe   Another discovery in 2018 gives us some new clues about dark matter. A team of American astronomers detected signals from the oldest stars in the universe, which formed just 180 million years after the Big Bang, according to Sky & Telescope. The absorption was stronger than predicted, suggesting that the gas the starlight had passed through was colder than expected. So what stole the energy? Sky & Telescope explained that the thief was likely dark matter, which presumably interacted with ordinary matter in the early days of the universe.   Mars Exploration   In June 2018, NASA announced that the Curiosity rover found organic material preserved in rocks on Mars and methane in the planet's atmosphere. While not necessarily indicative of life itself, the findings suggest the planet could have supported ancient life, according to NASA. Then, in late November, the InSight Mars lander arrived to dig deeper into the Red Planet to gather more data.   What's Next: New Missions   Insight was one of several successful launches to collect data that could lead to exciting new discoveries in 2019. The Parker Solar Probe is a robotic spacecraft that is going 3.83 million miles away from the sun. It launched in August, and in September, NASA reported it had started to receive data. Additionally, the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) launched in April to search for planets outside of our solar system, including, according to NASA, planets that could support life.   Looking ahead, the James Webb Space Telescope is expected to launch in 2021. It is optimized for infrared wavelengths, which means it will be able to see things that are invisible to its predecessor, the Hubble Space Telescope. NASA says the Webb telescope will be a giant leap forward in our quest to understand the universe and our origins.   If you're interested in working with the teams fueling the next generation of space discoveries, take a look at Northrop Grumman careers here.  

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