When Sudan, the last male Northern white rhino, died on March 19 at the age of 45, so did any hopes of his species continuing. However, scientists have saved his genetic material with the prospect of using in vitro fertilization (IVF) to create a viable embryo with eggs from the two remaining Northern white rhinos, his daughter and granddaughter, The New York Times said. This wild idea could actually help to save endangered species. Can Scientists Revive the Northern White Rhino? Today, millions of human babies are conceived with IVF, but this procedure wasn't always so common. The first human baby who was conceived by IVF, Louise Joy Brown, turns 40 this July, according to History.com. Veterinarians have also been using IVF for animals for the same period of time. According to Tufts, it is commonly used in the cattle industry to breed robust herds by creating embryos using eggs from the best dairy-producing cows. In fact, bovine IVF is now used at a scale comparable to human IVF (millions of newborns), according to the journal Reproduction. So, in theory, it should be possible to combine Sudan's sperm with an egg from a living female Northern white rhino, creating an embryo that would save the subspecies by creating a new generation. It's Complicated There are several critical complications that would prevent this plan from working. First, the eggs would need to be extracted because the female rhinos are too old to reproduce naturally. Scientists would have to use another subspecies, the Southern white rhino, as a surrogate mother, said The New York Times. While cows are pregnant for nine months, the white rhino's gestation period is longer — approximately 16 months, according to Save The Rhino — and they have such a delicate ability to conceive that it could be quite difficult to successfully impregnate a white rhino. The only available eggs would come from Sudan's daughter and granddaughter. Even in the best-case scenario, there would be a bottleneck of genetics since the sperm and egg donors are closely related to each other. Better Late Than Never? While IVF offers a last-ditch option for saving the Northern white rhino, it's probably too late. We're in a race against time, because IVF techniques for rhinos are still being developed and the last two Northern white rhinos are aging. "By the time you're down to a handful of individuals, who have become famous worldwide for being quite so rare, it's really far too late," said Cathy Dean, CEO of Save the Rhino, in a statement. The Future of Endangered Species It seems clear that IVF is not an ideal solution for saving the white rhinos. Nevertheless, exploring the idea of using it as a tool to save the subspecies from extinction could help us figure out how to save other endangered species.  Technology is a key component of modern environmental conservation efforts. While fertility techniques continue to improve for humans and agriculture, this knowledge could also help us save animals like the white rhino. Interested in environmental technology? Check out our careers page.

Could IVF Science Save Endangered Species?

 As a health-conscious consumer, you're probably aware of the buzz around probiotics. But did you realize that live yogurt might soon be on the menu in bee hives? The global bee population is under attack and scientists recently found that probiotics might be just the thing to help the insects recover.Decline of the Bees Beekeepers have noticed declining bee populations around the world since the late nineties. But in 2005, apiarists began reporting losses at a more frequent rate — opening hive after hive to find whole colonies dying at once. Researchers and farmers alike began to worry about the loss of these social insects.  As major crop pollinators around the world, bees are an invaluable species. Bees play a major role in agriculture, both for food and fiber crops. As essential pollinators for plants such as oranges, apples, cotton, lima beans and canola, the European Union estimated their value at around 153 billion Euros in 2005. In North America, bees are responsible for pollinating over a third of the foods you eat. The state of North Carolina estimates that — averaged over five years — honey bees "directly accounted for approximately $96 million in annual fruit and vegetable production (67.9%) and approximately $186 million in total annual crop productivity (24.5%)." Colony Collapsers But why should the global bee population suddenly take such a hit? Upon noticing the decline, bee researchers swung into action. Still, nothing seemed clear. Finally, after a number of studies, scientists narrowed the collapsing bee population puzzle down to three main factors: Infection: Infection is often a cause of sudden death throughout a population. Bees, as hive animals, are susceptible to a range of pathogens. When scientists looked at affected hives, they found higher levels of parasitic Varroa mites. While these mites don't actively kill their hosts, they weaken the bees by feeding off them. They also carry viruses that affect larval development by causing wing deformation or early death. Loss of habitat and supporting food plants: With changes in agriculture and the effects of climate change, habitats all over the world are changing. Simply put — bees need flowers. They need the pollen and nectar as food to survive and rear larvae. Insecticides and fungicides: When researchers analyzed hives that had collapsed, they found high levels of chemicals commonly used as pesticides and fungicides by the agricultural industry. A group of these sprays known as neonicotinoids, or neonics, seemed the worst culprits. In the end, there isn't a final and definitive answer; researchers have found that all of these factors combine to weaken the insects. Studies show that bees exposed to the neonics exhibit less resilience to infections and dietary stress. They didn't live as long as unexposed bees and also show behavioral changes. These changes impacted hive life since affected bees were less likely to perform vital cleaning or hygiene activity that keeps a hive healthy. Exposure to neonics also seriously impacted flight, with exposed bees foraging less for food or struggling to navigate their way home.Probiotics for Bee Microbiomes? Along with breeding Varroa-resistant strains and reducing pesticide use, bee specialists are finding that there are ways to help the bee population resist the stresses of modern living. Most recently, research in fruit flies shows that carefully selected probiotics can benefit the insects. When exposed to the neonic pesticides, the flies showed changes in their microbiota or bacterial flora and were more likely to die of infection or heat stress. However, when treated with probiotics, the challenged flies lived longer and resisted infection. The researchers found that the probiotic lactobacilli stimulated the insect's immune system. Since fruit flies have a similar immune system and carry the same bacterial populations, it's possible that this kind of support could help bees too. Not Just the Bees but the Birds, Fish and Beasts of the Field  Research into probiotics shows there is potential for the live bacteria to help in other areas of animal health, especially for species used in food production. Traditionally, farmers have used antibiotics as growth promoters to accelerate cost-effective animal rearing. However, in order to avoid the dangers of developing antibiotic resistance, the farming industry is now looking for alternatives such as in-feed probiotics. A 2016 report from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization summarizes the potential benefits of probiotics for the food industry and global food security. Food Conversion: Ruminants such as dairy cattle rely on their rumen microflora for getting energy from feed. Since probiotics change the gut bacterial content, they can be used to make food digestion and conversion more efficient by altering the rumen contents. Animals would need less feed to produce meat and milk, for example. Growth Rate: Poultry grows faster with in-feed probiotics, producing better quality meat in a shorter rearing time. The same is true for beef cattle and pig production. Infection Control: There's also some evidence that probiotics could help farm animals resist infection and producers are already moving toward this and other strategies to reduce antibiotic usage. In the future, probiotics may be an important feature of global agriculture and food security. As for bees and live yogurt? Yes, it is a possibility — apiarists already support bee colony health by placing pollen patties in the hive as a nutritional snack for busy workers.

Solution to Bee Population Woes Includes Probiotics

 Nowhere in the world are the effects of global climate change more visible and dramatic than in the Arctic, as documented by NASA's Aqua satellite and other powerful monitoring tools. The rate of warming across the Arctic is twice the global average. Vast regions of the Arctic Ocean, once covered with sea ice year round, are now open water during the summer months. This Arctic climate change is a transformation that has profound short and long-term national security implications. As the Arctic Ocean becomes open to widespread human activity, the world economy will be changed, with all the security implication for sea routes and other economic activities. At the same time, changes in the Arctic climate could accelerate climate changes worldwide. Opening the Northwest Passage ... Nearly five hundred years ago, explorers began searching for the Northwest Passage — a sea route around the northern edge of the North American continent that would save thousands of miles during a voyage between Europe and Asia. For centuries they never found it. Ships that attempted the Northwest Passage found their way blocked by Arctic sea ice. As NASA recounts, not until 1903—1906 did explorer Roald Amundsen succeed in making the passage in a specially built ship. But the voyage remained impassable to commercial shipping or indeed any conventional ships. Arctic climate change, however, is on the verge of opening the Arctic sea lanes — not only the Northwest Passage but also its counterpart, the Northeast Passage along the Arctic coast of Russia. Arctic coasts will thus become accessible for the first time. Ironically, Arctic land transportation could become more difficult as permafrost melts into marsh and mud. Rich deposits of natural resources are known to exist along these Arctic coasts, but sea ice rendered them economically out of reach. Now they are becoming accessible, potentially triggering a gold rush of activity that could raise the economic — and security — stakes across the Arctic region. As the CBC notes, the impact on Canada is particularly dramatic: Canada has the world's longest coastlines, more than 100,000 miles in all, most of it within the Arctic circle. Claims of territorial and navigation rights, once only nominal, may now become flashpoints of tension. Thus the Arctic region draws special attention in a Pentagon report on the national security implications of global climate change. Worldwide Security Implications But Arctic climate change has other national security implications that extend far beyond the Arctic. Polar bears are not alone in being threatened by the retreat of the Arctic sea ice. During the summer, the Arctic season of the midnight sun, intense sunlight pours down. Historically, sea ice has reflected most of it back into space. But as the ice melts, this summer sun is absorbed by sea water, warming it — and thus accelerating the process of global climate change. The warmer it gets, the faster the sea ice melts, and the more ice is melted, the more rapid the warming, a classic vicious circle or positive feedback loop. The effects, such as disruption of agriculture, could have a destabilizing effect on security worldwide. In responding to this national security challenge the first requirement is knowledge. As the Arctic region is transformed, we need to monitor both changing environmental conditions and growing human activity in the area. Yet Arctic conditions remain rugged at best, often hostile, making autonomous drone operations a natural and necessary solution for research and patrol surveillance alike. Thus a new tool for Arctic research is becoming available just as the need for it is growing.

The Seas They Are A Changin': Arctic Climate Change and National Security

In the modern world, it's common for people to spend huge chunks of their day staring at screens for work, essential tasks, entertainment and social interaction. Most of these screens are backlit LED screens that emit a high proportion of blue light, especially compared with older incandescent light bulbs and natural sunlight. Because people are spending so much time on computers, tablets and cell phones — often with their eyes just inches away from the screen — some eye care professionals are worried that this could cause lasting harm.   So, does blue light damage your eyes? How do blue light glasses work? Let's explore.   What Is Blue Light?   Visible light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Within this spectrum, radio waves have the longest wavelengths and the least energy, followed by infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma rays, which have the shortest wavelengths and most energy. Within the visible spectrum, red light has the longest wavelengths and least energy, followed by orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. The last three colors — blue, indigo and violet — are often grouped together as "blue."   In the eye, light travels first through the cornea and then through the lens to reach the retina in the back. The retina contains rod cells that produce images in black and white (which is essential in low-light conditions) and cone cells to detect color (which is only possible in bright-light conditions). The cornea and lens block most UV light and prevent it from reaching the retina. Excessive exposure to UV light is known to damage the cornea and cause snow blindness, according to the American Academy of Ophthalmology. This exposure can also increase the risk of cataracts in the lens, as the National Eye Institute explains. Sunglasses with quality lenses can block 99%-100% of UV light and 75%-90% of visible light and are strongly recommended for anyone in bright sunlight.   Blue light is not blocked by the cornea or the lens — despite having just slightly longer wavelengths and slightly less energy than UV light. Most flat screen devices use a blue-light LED (peak emission of ~450-470nm) coupled with a yellow phosphor (peak emission ~580nm) to produce light that appears white, as the journal Molecular Vision describes. This color distribution is very different from that of natural sunlight.   Does Blue Light Damage Your Eyes?   Experiments have shown that blue light — more than other wavelengths of visible light — can damage retinal cells in Petri dishes and in laboratory rodents. However, these experiments are done with levels of blue light that far exceed what would be produced by a typical screen. For example, a 2018 study published in PLoS One exposed mice to bright white light (5,000 lux) for 24 hours a day for 7 days.   "Lux" is a measurement of light per surface area. Experts recommend about 300 lux for living rooms and between 500 and 800 lux for reading areas, according to ThoughtCo. The lux provided by a computer or tablet depends on the brightness setting and the distance to the user's eyes. According to Elemental, desktop computers can provide anywhere between 0.5 and 37.8 lux. This is far below the 5,000 lux used in the 2018 PLoS One experiment and many similar experiments. As an additional point of reference, sunlight can provide around 100 lux on an overcast day and over 10,000 lux on a very bright day, according to the Engineering Toolbox. Therefore, sunlight provides far more blue light than LED screens.   While the laboratory experiments on blue light are extreme, some of the results are concerning because the retinal cell damage is similar to what is seen in age-related macular degeneration, which is a leading cause of vision loss in older adults.   How Do Blue Light Glasses Work?   The 2018 PLoS One experiment used a special filter that blocked 94% of blue light while allowing other wavelengths to flow through. More typical filters only block 30%-50% of blue light and also block other wavelengths to some extent. These filters work in the same way as sunglasses that block UV light. Many companies now offer glasses that block blue light and filters that can be placed over digital screens to block blue light.   The American Academy of Ophthalmology does not recommend any special blue light-blocking eyewear for computer use. This is because the available evidence doesn't indicate that the amount of blue light produced by electronic devices harms the eye. Furthermore, blue light has many positive effects. It increases alertness, memory and cognitive function, and it treats seasonal depression.   Nonetheless, some people find that blue-light blocking glasses can decrease eye strain when viewing digital devices for long periods of time. Digital eye strain commonly results in dry, irritated eyes and difficulty focusing. This is temporary and can often be prevented by following the 20/20/20 rule: After every 20 minutes of computer time, focus on something about 20 feet away for 20 seconds.   Finally, blue light is known to suppress the production of melatonin hormone, which induces sleep. Many experts recommend turning off digital screens at least 30 minutes before bedtime.   Blue light is all around us, especially as our world becomes more digitized. But taking the proper precautions can help you keep your eyes protected.   Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery. 

Does Blue Light Damage Your Eyes?

Getting a full-body health scan sounds like a great way to detect potential problems before they become too serious. After all, early detection is the rationale behind blood tests for high cholesterol, mammograms for breast cancer, colonoscopies for colon cancer, and blood tests for other cancers. Companies such as Prenuvo offer a full-body health scan that can detect hundreds of different health conditions in the early stages, such as tumors and aneurysms (weakened arteries). So if you have the money and are concerned about your health, why wouldn't you spend $500 for a full-body CT scan or $2500 for a full-body MRI? Well, there are actually some good reasons not to do so, and some reasons why it could be a good idea. Benefits and Risks At the outset, there's simply no evidence that the benefits of an MRI or CT scan outweigh the risks for people who show no signs of illness, as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) notes. This benefit versus risk calculation is also why the American Cancer Society only recommends mammograms for women over 40, unless they are at increased risk. Mammograms use X-rays to detect breast cancer, and X-rays cause DNA damage that can increase the risk of developing cancer.  CT scans also use X-rays combined with computer technology to produce image "slices" of the inside of the body. When a CT scan is used as a whole-body scanner, it results in more X-ray exposure than a typical mammogram. For patients who are showing symptoms, CT scans can be used to detect various cancers and determine whether they have spread to other parts of the body. They can also detect a buildup of calcium in the arteries of the heart, blood clots and other abnormalities. The most detailed images may require patients to ingest special dyes or radioactive material, according to Choosing Wisely. CT scans are also used on trauma patients to detect broken bones or other internal injuries quickly. Another type of body scanner is the MRI, which uses harmless magnetic fields and radio waves instead of X-rays, so there's no increased cancer risk. This makes MRIs the preferred choice for people who need frequent imaging, according to the Cleveland Clinic. MRIs are also better than CT scans for providing clear images of soft tissues, such as the heart, liver, kidneys, spleen, brain, spinal cord, nerves, muscles, ligaments and tendons. While MRIs pose less risk than CT scans, there's still the very real possibility of finding something unexpected that's not causing any harm, which could lead to additional tests, biopsies and unnecessary treatments. The Results Have Been Significant A study published in the New England Journal of Medicine reported on 2000 healthy volunteers between the ages of 45 and 97 who each underwent an MRI of the brain. A whopping 7.2% of participants showed evidence of a stroke, 1.8% had cerebral aneurysms (a weak spot in a brain artery), and 1.6% had non-cancerous tumors. None of these volunteers were showing any symptoms, and most would continue to be unaffected by anything detected in the MRI. It's up for debate whether these MRIs provided any information that could benefit these patients. In a similar study, the British Medical Journal reported on 600 emergency room patients and found that one-third had abnormalities detected by CT scan that were unrelated to their emergency room visit.  MRI or CT scans may be beneficial for individuals at high risk of developing certain diseases. Studies are currently underway for patients at high risk of lung cancer or colon cancer, according to the FDA. For some women at high risk for breast cancer, MRIs are recommended in addition to mammograms. Reputable healthcare institutions do offer total-body CT scanning for high-risk patients working closely with knowledgeable physicians. For example, the Cleveland Clinic offers total-body CT scanning to analyze three major areas of the body: the lungs (to detect potentially malignant nodules), the heart (to detect aortic aneurysms and calcium deposits within the coronary arteries) and the abdomen/pelvis (to detect kidney stones, cysts, enlarged lymph nodes, large abdominal/pelvic masses, fatty liver). So while full-body health scans aren't recommended for everyone, anyone at high risk or with worrisome symptoms should — as always — contact a healthcare professional. Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

A Full-Body Health Scan Could Be in Our Future

It's become increasingly clear that COVID-19 is here to stay, — as a result, companies are looking to make detection and treatment as fast and easy as possible. One new device is the InspectIR COVID-19 breathalyzer test, which received FDA emergency use authorization in April 2022. If you're wondering how this test works, what is unique about this new healthcare technology or why it matters, read on. How the InspectIR COVID-19 Breathalyzer Technology Works This new healthcare technology uses a specific technique called gas chromatography mass-spectrometry. The American Chemical Society likens this groundbreaking tech to a tricorder from Star Trek: a portable method that can analyze the components of a chemical mixture. Gas chromatography mass-spectrometry is the combination of two separate, powerful techniques. Gas chromatography vaporizes a substance. It's then usually carried into a tube by an inert gas through a stationary phase, which is often a viscous liquid over a solid. Because gases react differently to passing through a stationary phase, a detector can tell what the different components are and how much of each there is. In mass spectrometry, the substance is ionized and its components are then separated according to the ratio of their mass to their charge. Once separated into fragments, scientists are able to determine what's in the sample through a spectrum. These two techniques work together because the gas chromatography separates each component and then mass spectrometry can analyze them individually. The InspectIR COVID-19 breathalyzer test can identify five separate volatile organic compounds associated with the novel coronavirus in a patient's breath, thanks to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. If the test detects any of these, it returns a positive result. How Does It Compare to Other Tests? This new healthcare technology can only be administered by professionals, which means it is not a replacement or substitute for at-home antigen or PCR tests. The accuracy rate of this breathalyzer test is high — 91.2% for positive samples and 99.3% for negative samples, which is similar to the accuracy of antigen tests. It was even able to identify COVID-19 in patients displaying no symptoms. According to FDA documents, the company does recommend following up a positive result with a more accurate molecular test. Negative tests shouldn't be taken at face value and should instead be considered with the patient's exposure history. In other words, you may still have COVID-19 even if the test comes back negative. It's also less invasive than other tests; patients need only blow into a straw rather than undergo a deep nasal swab. And it returns results faster than many competitors — within three minutes. What Are the Drawbacks? There are a few drawbacks to this method, however. First, the technology is relatively untested. Some scientists and doctors think that there needs to be more real-world use of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry as a diagnostic tool before it's used in real-world testing situations. It's also only approved for those 18 or older, so it's not suitable for children. Additionally, despite the technique being described as "portable," it still requires suitcase-sized equipment. And each machine can only process a single test at once, which means using this technology for mass testing would be cumbersome. Despite its speed, that makes this technology less than ideal for rapid testing. Why Does This Matter? The approval of the InspectIR COVID-19 breathalyzer test is significant for a broader reason, though. This is the first authorized use of a breathalyzer machine as a diagnostic tool. Scientists and researchers have been trying to perfect this technology for years. This is an interesting step forward for the new healthcare technology, and it remains to be seen how well it does in practical, daily use over the next few years. Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

InspectIR COVID-19 Breathalyzer Test Is the First of Its Kind

Key Takeaways  Mindfulness is an exercise for training the brain. Research shows benefits for reducing stress, increasing memory and boosting attention span. Mindfulness and meditation can change the anatomy of the brain.Mindfulness is a meditation practice that involves intentionally paying attention to the present moment. Researchers studying the science behind mindfulness meditation have demonstrated that it can actually change the way our brains work. As more and more Americans report depression and anxiety, there has been increased public interest and scientific attention to mindfulness in recent years. Could something as simple as meditating be a realistic alternative to pharmaceutical solutions?"The science is new on this subject, but it's deeply embedded in the religious practices, especially in south Asian countries like India and Nepal," said Muhammad Aadil, M.D., resident physician in psychiatry at Rutgers New Jersey Medical School.He reviewed the latest research on mindfulness in the journal Cureus and as a physician, he educates his patients about mindfulness. We spoke with Dr. Aadil to learn whether mindfulness is a fad or the real deal, and to understand what happens to the brain during meditation.Benefits of Mindfulness"Our mind is always wandering and always thinking about different things and not staying in the present moment,"said Aadil. "So, if you can train your mind to stick in the present time, it can truly change your life."Scientific studies have demonstrated that mindfulness can help focus our thoughts. According to the University of California, Berkeley's Greater Good Magazine, consistent meditation can improve your compassion, ability to solve problems, attention span and resiliency to stress. Mindfulness helps the mind and body recover from stressful situations. For example, researchers have found that mindfulness makes breakups and divorce easier.In general, according to Greater Good, mindfulness is a positive influence on relationships with loved ones. For example, studies have shown that when couples discussed a conflict, the stress hormone cortisol spiked during these difficult conversations, as expected. But after the conflict was over, the more mindful participants calmed down faster and quickly returned to normal cortisol levels.Mindfulness can be a helpful tool for parents. It has been linked to lower stress, depression, and anxiety among parents of preschoolers and children with disabilities, and mindful parenting practices can help parents be more empathetic with their children.Scientific American reports that evidence-backed benefits of mindfulness include memory improvement, stress reduction, healthier diet and sleep improvement. One study found undergraduate students who took a two-week mindfulness class performed better on the reading comprehension portion of the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) test used for graduate school admissions by 16 percentile points.Mindfulness programs have widely been shown to help people cope with mental health such as anxiety and stress, and they can also improve physical health by helping people improve their eating and sleeping habits. For example, people who meditate with their eyes closed fall asleep faster, Aadil said.Mental Health and Meditation PracticesMindfulness can be part of psychological treatment called cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), to help people with post-traumatic stress disorder, substance abuse, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and eating disorders. In those situations, meditation can supplement, though not replace standard treatment."The gold standard treatment is medication," says Aadil. He adds, "Maybe in the future, with better techniques for mindful CBT, we might be able to reduce the dosage of the medication, but I don't see that it will completely replace medication."But for mild depression and mild anxiety, mindfulness practices can be very effective without medication, according to Aadil."If I see a patient that's in the emergency or in the outpatient clinic," said Aadil, "I ask if they have heard of any mindfulness techniques. And if they say no, then I just educate them on the basics of mindfulness."When Aadil has more time with patients, he does a guided two- to five-minute mindfulness therapy. The idea is to have the patient close their eyes, focus on breathing slowly and being only in the present moment. Depending on how technically savvy his patients are, he may also suggest meditation apps to help them continue to practice mindfulness at home.What Happens to the Brain During MeditationNeuroscientists have studied mindfulness and discovered that meditation actually changes the physical structure of the brain. The Observer reports that when Harvard Medical School scientist Sara Lazar was skeptical about her yoga teacher's claims about the benefits of meditation, she used MRI technology to find proof. Surprisingly, she observed that meditation can help us stay sharper as we age. The frontal cortex, which is the part of the brain associated with memories, typically thins out as we age. The brain scans revealed that older meditators had the same amount of gray matter in their cortex as their younger counterparts.In another study, the Harvard neuroscientists observed people who had never meditated before as they went through an eight-week mindfulness training program. The results demonstrated that mindfulness activates the parts of the brain related to memory storage, empathy and emotional regulation, as evidenced by an increase in brain volume in the hippocampus and temporoparietal junction. At the same time, meditation reduces activity in the fight or flight survival instinct part of the brain (amygdala), which triggers stress hormones.According to Greater Good Magazine, long-term, consistent meditation makes people more resilient because it reduces the inflammatory response in people when they are exposed to stressors."There are certain inflammatory markers for depression and anxiety that you can measure in the blood," Aadil explained. "For individuals who are meditating for a long time, meaning for more than a year or two years, those inflammation markers go down in the blood."Training the BrainWhile there is science behind mindfulness meditation, some studies have shown mixed results. For example, according to Greater Good, a study showed that a mindfulness program for adults had no impact on depression or anxiety in teens. Many other studies were inconclusive about the benefits of mindfulness practices.One big issue is that not everyone is motivated to do brain training exercises. For many people, it's difficult to sit still for several minutes."One thing we can do is start teaching kids or children at a very early age, at least some basic mindfulness techniques," says Aadil.Even a mindfulness expert such as Aadil admitted that he sees low success rates with his patients. Most of his patients are homeless, dealing with severe financial stress and addiction problems, so it's difficult for them to prioritize meditation when they have more urgent issues to address.After extensively studying mindfulness practices and learning the proven benefits, Aadil still finds it difficult."I have read so much about meditation," Aadil says. "I know how effective it is, I know how beneficial it is, I have multiple apps, I have a reminder for every day. But I'm still not able to practice daily."Mindfulness is an exercise for training the brain. It's not only about carving out a few moments of peace in your day. Just like the benefits of physical exercise extend beyond your sweat session, mindfulness has lasting benefits. Like many other skills, meditation is easy for some people and challenging for others. But like any other skill, it takes practice and dedication.Northrop Grumman is a pioneering company. Learn more about where we're active in digital transformation, technology and innovation.

The Science Behind Mindfulness Meditation Is All in Your Head

During summer 2016, a 12-year-old boy in Siberia died from a puzzling disease linked to thawing permafrost. Scientific American reported that 20 other people in the same remote area were diagnosed with the same disease; another 80 were hospitalized with suspicious symptoms. Then, more than 2,300 reindeer were found dead because of this disease.   The cause? Anthrax.   Thawing Permafrost Releases Anthrax   Most Americans associate anthrax with a white, powdery substance used to poison other people via the mail. However, anthrax is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium bacillus anthracis. Anthrax is usually spread by contact with the bacterium's spores, which often occur in infected animals. In the case of remote Siberia, scientists believe that the infection began in a reindeer that died 75 years ago, according to The Washington Post.   Scientific American warned that when permafrost — a permanently frozen layer of soil — begins to thaw because of the Earth's changing temperatures, previously frozen spores that cause deadly diseases can be released into the air. These spores can get into the water and soil, and may eventually enter a community's food supply.   In Siberia, a heatwave caused melting permafrost. Then came water and bubbling methane in the permafrost fields. Record fires lit up Russian grasslands, according to The Washington Post. The anthrax bacteria, which lay dormant and frozen for 75 years, thawed. Reindeer started to die. Reindeer herders fell ill. Eventually, the entire community found itself in quarantine.   Global Warming and Dormant Diseases   Scientific American noted that researchers have been predicting that warmer temperatures could cause permafrost to thaw, initiating a new spread of dormant diseases. When permafrost thaws, whatever is frozen also thaws, meaning ancient bacteria could be released into the environment more frequently as the Earth's temperatures increase.    The release of these dormant diseases depends on how deeply the permafrost melts and how high temperatures go. It also depends on how strong the type of frozen bacteria is: some microorganisms can't survive in the cold for very long, while others, like anthrax, seem built for long-term freezes.   Viruses also have the potential to survive for a long time in frozen Earth layers. It is possible, if not probable, that viruses that infected humans on a large scale (such as smallpox or the Spanish flu) could return. In 2014, two scientists resurrected the largest virus ever seen from a 30,000-year-old chunk of ice, according to Nature. The disease was still infectious, despite the time that had passed.   Cause for Concern?   Research published in Global Health Action warned that scientists should carefully monitor permafrost conditions, especially in areas where anthrax outbreaks have occurred in the past. Many scientists are doing just that. Janet Jansson of the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory uses molecular approaches to study the microbial communities that live in soil and sediments, specifically in permafrost. Paul F. Shuster and his team of scientists found significant stores of mercury in permafrost sites in Arctic regions, according to Geophysical Research Letters. In Woods Hole, Massachusetts, scientists are drilling into permafrost cores to see what they can find, hoping to offset the surprise release of new deadly diseases, said the New York Times.   Overall, the threat of thawing depends upon which microorganisms are unearthed. The risk of releasing dormant diseases also depends upon how warm our planet gets and how much our climate changes in the coming years. Heat waves could thaw permafrost more quickly than expected, so more research will be required before we are fully prepared.

Thawing Permafrost May Reawaken Dormant Diseases

If you've ever been expecting a baby (or are currently expecting), you know how difficult the process can be. You worry about every single thing until the child arrives, and whether you're adopting, using a surrogate or you or your partner are pregnant, it's a nerve-wracking time when it seems like every little thing could affect the baby's health. One question that's often brought up is whether a person's diet can affect the baby they are carrying. We know that bacteria can have an ill effect on a fetus, and we also know that certain foods are bad for babies. For example, pregnant people are advised to avoid eating certain kinds of fish that contain mercury. But more broadly, can what a person eats, whether before or during pregnancy, affect a baby's genetics? To understand what can alter a baby's DNA, we need to look closely at a key question: what is epigenetics? How Biological Parents Pass Down Their Genes To answer the question of whether diet can affect a baby's genes, we first have to look at exactly how genetics work in a fetus. At conception, the egg and sperm combine, and these two contain all the genetic material necessary to create a human. As these cells replicate and divide, the genetic information is copied to each new cell. Genes are sections of DNA that determine traits such as eye color and body type. DNA comes in pairs of 23 chromosomes, with one half of every pair coming from each biological parent. While there are exceptions to this rule (such as genome-wide uniparental disomy or diploidy (GWUPD), where all genes are inherited from one parent), they are extremely rare. Diet's Genetic Role Starts Early There's often burdensome pressure placed on pregnant people to think only of the fetus inside them, and not of themselves, when they're making choices. Individuals should consult with their doctor about which are the right choices for them. It turns out that there is a direct connection between what a pregnant person eats and their baby's genes, and that link starts before conception. According to a study published in Nature Communications, what a person eats before getting pregnant can have a significant impact on a child's DNA. The team behind this study looked at pregnant people in an area of the Gambia where food availability was dependent on climate. More nutrient-rich food was eaten during the rainy season than the dry season, so the researchers looked at 84 people who had conceived in the peak of rainy season and 83 who had done so in the peak of dry season. They found that nutritional well-being at the time of conception can affect a baby's genetics. Diet doesn't alter the genes themselves, but what it can do is affect which genes are and are not expressed (turned on or off), in the earliest stages of development. This is called epigenetics. What is epigenetics? Epigenetic changes, which are caused by a person's behaviors or environment, can play a key role in whether a person will inherit a metabolic condition, such as diabetes or insulin resistance. And it's not just the parents that can influence this; scientists have found that the diet of grandparents and even great-grandparents can cause epigenetic changes as well. It's not clear exactly how our genes retain these memories as they're passed down, but there's increasing evidence that this does occur. Diet and Exercise Can Alter Your DNA We know that diet and exercise can alter your DNA as an adult, so it's not surprising that similar effects can be seen in the genes of a developing fetus. In fact, exercise can lower the risk of a child inheriting heightened risk for diabetes and other harmful medical conditions. A 2021 study in the Journal of Applied Physiology shows that, in rodents, exercise during pregnancy can mitigate negative effects that a poor diet might have on offspring — so much so that if the parent carrying the child stays active during pregnancy, the risks of passing on a metabolic problem such as insulin resistance to a baby nears zero. It's increasingly clear that living a healthy lifestyle full of exercise and eating healthy foods is important before conception even occurs. But everything is in moderation, and there's no reason to worry whether having an indulgent meal or skipping a morning run will cause harm to a fetus. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

How parents' diet can affect a baby's genes

Nobody is fully in control of their body or mind when they sleep. It's common for people to snore or occasionally talk in their sleep, or to have dreams that inexplicably combine real-life and imaginary events. Upon waking up, you might vividly recall portions of a dream, just the faintest snippets, or nothing at all. One of the most puzzling, and potentially dangerous, nocturnal behaviors is sleepwalking. Unknowingly getting up, and sometimes performing complicated tasks, is an especially unsettling way to lose control of your body. We'll take a look at what causes sleepwalking, but first, let's define what it is and its prevalence. What Is Sleepwalking? The medical term is "somnambulism," which involves a person getting up and walking around while in a state of deep sleep, according to the Mayo Clinic. Sleepwalking is most common in children, with most growing out of it by the time they reach puberty. A typical episode occurs one to three hours after falling asleep and lasts fewer than 10 minutes, sometimes ending within a few seconds. The person may sit up in bed and look around with a blank expression on their face, rub their eyes, or tug on their pajamas. They may get out of bed and walk around with their eyes open. The sleepwalker may engage in normal activities such as getting dressed, eating or urinating but may do so in a clumsy or inappropriate way — for example, eating pet food or urinating in the closet. Since they are in a deep state of sleep, the sleepwalker typically will not respond when spoken to or may respond incoherently. The person may return to bed on their own, with or without waking up confused, or may be gently coaxed back to bed. Whenever possible, experts advise against waking a sleepwalker, as they may react with fear, confusion or anger. If the sleepwalker can return to bed without waking up, they will typically have no memory of the event. As Current Biology reports, it's estimated that 17% of children sleepwalk, and 2% to 4% of adults regularly sleepwalk or engage in related behaviors. It's quite common for people to sleepwalk occasionally, with 29% of adults experiencing at least one episode in their lifetime, which is often related to the use of sleeping pills or antidepressants. If you have a sleepwalker in your home, preventing injury should be a top priority. Keep guns and knives out of reach. Close and lock windows and doors as appropriate, and use safety gates at the tops of stairs. Remove tripping hazards and other potentially harmful objects. These measures are usually sufficient for the occasional sleepwalker. However, a serious discussion with a medical professional is recommended if the episodes are frequent (e.g., one to two times a week), prolonged or likely to result in serious injury. For example, some sleepwalkers will leave the house and even attempt to drive a car. What Causes Sleepwalking? The immediate cause of somnambulism is still unknown, but there is a clear genetic component. About 22% of children whose parents have no history of this behavior will sleepwalk, according to the Sleep Foundation. That number rises to 47% if one parent has a history of sleepwalking or 61% if both parents were known to sleepwalk. Sleepwalking occurs during the deepest phase of sleep. According to StatPearls, the four stages of human sleep are N1, N2, N3 and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. N1, N2 and N3 are stages of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. The human body cycles through all these stages four to five times each night, averaging about 90 minutes per cycle. N1 is the first and lightest stage of sleep and usually lasts just one to five minutes. Everything starts to slow down, including eye movements and muscle activity. N2 is a deeper sleep, when heart rate and body temperature drop. This stage is important for consolidating memory. Eye movement stops, and teeth grinding may occur. N2 may last 25 minutes in the first cycle and lengthen with each successive cycle. N3 is the deepest stage of non-REM sleep, and there is usually no eye movement or muscle activity. This is also the stage when sleepwalking, night terrors and bedwetting occur. Individuals forced to wake up during this stage tend to be "groggy" — with moderately impaired mental performance for up to an hour. As people age, they tend to spend less time in this stage and more time in N2. Finally, REM sleep is associated with vivid dreams and rapid eye movement. The legs and arms become temporarily paralyzed, but heart rate increases and the brain is highly active. The first REM period typically lasts 10 minutes, with the final one lasting up to an hour. In the morning, people tend to wake up spontaneously during REM sleep. Children are more prone to sleepwalking because their brains are still developing, and they spend more time in deep N3 sleep. Contributing Factors Regardless of age, people are more likely to sleepwalk when they are extremely fatigued, probably because they are spending more time in deep sleep. Other factors that increase the risk of sleepwalking are associated with disruptions in sleep, such as stress and anxiety, sudden noises or touches, illness, fever or going to sleep with a full bladder. Migraines, drinking too much alcohol and certain medications can also trigger an episode. Restless legs syndrome and obstructive sleep apnea (pauses in a person's breathing pattern) are also common culprits. Any underlying medical issues should be treated to reduce somnambulism. For some sleepwalkers, relatively straightforward measures can decrease the likelihood of an episode:   Keep a regular sleep schedule.  Reduce stress.  Ensure the room is dark, quiet and comfortable for sleeping.  Limit drinks and caffeine in the evening.  Use the toilet before bedtime.  If those options fail, sleepwalkers may benefit from therapy or medications. Researchers are still working to understand what fully causes sleepwalking, so it may take some time for a patient's physician to tailor an effective strategy to combat this potentially dangerous sleep disorder. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

What Causes Sleepwalking?

An experimental blood test could one day make early detection of cancer possible. At least two research studies published this year show exciting advances in DNA methylation analysis, a method that examines biochemical alterations of genetic material for the presence of cancer. Dubbed "liquid biopsies" by some, one of the experiments accurately predicted the emergence of 50 cancers and where the tumor was growing in thousands of people, reports Chemistry World; the other made predictions up to four years before symptoms occurred, according to Scientific American. The existence of a single test that can potentially screen for multiple cancers at once could lead to early interventions and treatments that save lives. "Achieving this goal is one of the most ambitious undertakings in healthcare, and this is exactly what we are committed to doing," team scientists from the California-based healthcare company, GRAIL, wrote in a feature for Nature Research. Early Detection of Cancer Anyone who visits their primary care physician on an annual basis knows that a handful of cancer screening tests already exist. Mammograms, for instance, look for early signs of breast cancer, colonoscopies check for colon cancer and Pap tests screen for cervical cancer. Undergoing such tests before symptoms appear can make a difference. More than 90% of women diagnosed with breast cancer in the early stage survive at least five years compared with women diagnosed at late stages, reports Cancer Research UK. More than nine in 10 patients with bowel cancer will survive at least five years if diagnosed early and 90% of women diagnosed early for ovarian cancer will survive at least five years compared to those diagnosed when the disease had advanced to a late stage. Unfortunately, cancer screening tests return an unacceptably high rate of false positives. A study published in Cancer, a peer-reviewed publication from the American Cancer Society, showed that over a period of 10 years, about 50 to 60 of 100 women who get annual mammograms; 23 of 100 people who get stool tests; and 10 to 12 in 100 men screened for prostate cancer have false-positive results. Even tests that return low false-positive results depend on the presence of malignant cells or tumors. For instance, mammograms depend on anomalies in breast tissue. Colonoscopies are accomplished using a long, flexible, tubular instrument that transmits an image of the colon to a monitor, where a doctor examines the tissue for abnormalities. And a Pap test involves sampling a small amount of mucous from the cervix and analyzing it under a microscope to detect abnormal cells. Exciting new approaches could provide accurate and early detection of cancer long before abnormal tissue or cells appear. DNA Methylation Analysis Early cancer detection could be possible because of a biochemical process, called methylation, which is the transfer of four atoms — one carbon atom and three hydrogen atoms (CH3) — from one substance to another. The transfer to and from substances work as a kind of biological switch, turning on and off a host of systems in the body. In the case of DNA, methylation can turn on or off the expression of certain genes linked to cancer. Because this process occurs in tens of millions of known places in the body, it offers a global view of cancer, the GRAIL researchers say. "In contrast to typical cancer mutations that only affect a handful of genomic locations, there are nearly 30 million sites, known as CpG sites, across the human genome that can be methylated or unmethylated, making them a ubiquitous and rich signal for detecting cancer," the GRAIL team writes in Nature Research. GRAIL scientists and those from the second team that published their research in Nature Communications, studied blood from tens of thousands of people over a period of years. The scientists looked at methylation patterns in the DNA of the blood and plugged the information into machine learning algorithms. Over time, some of those people developed cancer and that information was also fed to the algorithms. Eventually, the machine learning algorithms began to recognize a relationship between abnormal methylation patterns in the DNA and certain cancers. Next, the scientists sampled blood from new patients and fed information about methylation patterns in that blood to the machine learning algorithms, which were able to make predictions from what it saw. "What we showed is: up to four years before these people walk into the hospital, there are already signatures in their blood that show they have cancer," Kun Zhang, a bioengineer at the University of California, San Diego, and a co-author of one of the studies told Scientific American. Although more research is needed, DNA methylation analysis could fundamentally change cancer treatment. For a disease that is the second leading cause of death worldwide, the progress marks one of the most exciting possibilities in the early detection of cancer.

Blood Test Could Make Early Detection of Cancer Possible

Strap on an Oculus Rift headset and find yourself in another world. Immersive experiences are great for games and even business applications, but what about health? Researchers are now examining the benefits of virtual reality for both mental health, overall well-being and relaxation techniques. A New Mass Medium VR technology has been around for decades, but only in recent years has it become a form of mass media, with headset shipments topping 1 million units for the first time in 2017, according to Canalys. Manufacturers, meanwhile, have introduced devices that are ever more eye-popping. HTC's latest VR video player, Vive, for instance, has dual OLED displays with 78 percent greater resolution than the previous model, The Verge reported. As VR becomes more powerful and ubiquitous, its potential for supporting health increases. One possible application is treating post-traumatic stress disorder. As reported in Psychological Medicine, researchers reviewed 285 studies in which VR technology was used to treat mental illnesses such as anxiety and schizophrenia. The authors noted that VR treatment can reduce anxiety using relaxation techniques (soothing music, for example), and concluded that "VR has the potential to transform the assessment, understanding and treatment of mental health problems." The Great Outdoors If the benefits of virtual reality are seen in mental health treatment, what about overall wellness? It's long been established that going outdoors can boost well-being. For example, a 2016 University of Queensland study in Scientific Reports found that people who visited green spaces had lower blood pressure and lower rates of depression. Software developers are taking advantage of this link by creating VR environments that can relax users with music, animations and real or simulated natural environments. For instance, exVRience relaxation takes users through live-action 360-degree shots of Australian beaches, lagoons and waterfalls; Perfect offers a range of simulated mountain, sea and winter landscapes; and Nature Treks VR allows users to create their own relaxing simulated natural environments. The Drawbacks of VR  There are some potential issues, however, when it comes to VR technology and nature. One is the lack of clinical data showing that VR experiences can be as effective as actually being in natural surroundings; this may come in the near future as application use is studied more. Another concern is whether or not people will replace taking a walk in the woods with strapping on a VR headset. Photographer and panoramic filmmaker Thomas Hayden thinks that isn't a real worry because he sees VR as something that will inspire people to eventually seek out real nature, just like nature documentaries have done for nearly a century. "VR places the viewer into an experience," Hayden told Sierra. "It's an incredible use of technology to inspire people who might never get to see Mount Everest or the Grand Canyon to realize that our natural areas need protecting."  Anyone for Virtual Tennis? Aside from de-stressing in the virtual outdoors, headsets could benefit users by getting them to exercise. Developers are taking a cue from Nintendo's Wii Sports — which allows gamers to play simulated tennis and other sports — by using VR to create more immersive sports game environments. Workout and sports apps such as BOXVR, Knockout League and Sparc challenge players to move their bodies to defeat virtual opponents or complete an exercise regimen. Zwift is a popular interactive cycling simulator in which players use indoor trainers in front of video screens, and it has also teased a VR edition. So while VR headsets have often been pigeonholed as gaming devices, they're becoming powerful therapeutic, relaxation and fitness tools. If you haven't tried one out yet, there's no time like the present. 

Relaxation Among the Many Benefits of Virtual Reality

Mosquitoes are the world's deadliest animal. Infectious diseases, including malaria, are transmitted through female mosquitoes, which need a blood meal to produce eggs. According to the World Health Organization, there were an estimated 241 million cases of malaria in 2020, which resulted in 627,000 deaths. While nearly half of the world's population is as at risk of being infected with malaria, an estimated 96% of associated deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa. Children under 5 years old are the most vulnerable, accounting for 80% of these deaths.Targeting Mosquitos With TechnologyWealthy countries can spray their way out of the problem. For example, Manatee County in Florida has an annual budget of $5.5 million for mosquito control, according to YourObserver.com. With about 400,000 residents, that's $14 per person per year. That money pays for helicopters and pilots that fly over neighborhoods at night to spray insecticides. The goal is to spray female mosquitos as they buzz through the air looking for a blood meal. As a result of these efforts, mosquitos are mostly just a nuisance in Manatee County, although there have been recent outbreaks of mosquito-transmitted encephalitis, West Nile virus, and Zika virus. Wealthy countries also have more resources for treating malaria and other diseases.In sub-Saharan Africa, a more economical approach is needed. One method that is proving to be effective is the use of drones — like the ones used by backyard hobbyists — connected to a smartphone app that identifies sites where mosquitos lay their eggs. Those same drones can be equipped to dispense insecticides quite precisely. By treating these sites before the mosquitos can mature and fly away, small amounts of insecticide can prevent the transmission of infectious diseases. This reduces the cost, the environmental impact, and the likelihood that the mosquitos become resistant to the insecticide. One recent study published in the American Journal of Entomology tested this approach in Uganda, where the GDP is about $800 per person per year.Identifying Larval HabitatsMalaria is transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes, which lay their eggs in stagnant water and typically take 10 to 14 days to develop from egg to larva to adult, according to the CDC. Some larval habitats are essentially permanent and easy to identify, such as marshes, mangrove swamps, and rice patties. Other larval habitats are temporary and small, such as rain pools at construction sites, in hoof prints, and in tire tracks on unpaved roads. There may be thousands of these sites within an acre of land after a heavy rain. Identifying and treating these sites would be very labor intensive for a human, but ideal work for a drone.The research team designed a smartphone app that uses high-resolution video and artificial intelligence to identify potential larval sites, and it integrates that information with satellite data to produce a detailed map in real time. The smartphone app was first trained on known larval sites for Anopheles mosquitoes. The algorithm works by identifying the unique "fingerprint" of larval sites, which depends on characteristics such as whether the water is turbid or clean, stagnant or running, sunlit or shaded. This was done by determining the spectral "signature" of larval sites based on how it reflects or emits light of different wavelengths — including red, green, blue, near infrared and mid-infrared. Once the app has been trained on known larval sites, the drone can be flown at a higher altitude to survey a larger area and create a spatial map of where mosquitoes are likely to lay their eggs. The system can easily be adapted for different mosquito species that prefer to lay their eggs in different habitats.Reducing the Burden of Infectious DiseasesThe goal of the research team was to not only identify larval sites but also effectively treat the sites and reduce the burden of disease. The operation was dubbed Seek and Destroy. The test site was in the Gulu district of Northern Uganda, where 90% of the population engages in subsistence agriculture. Malaria infection occurs year-round, with peaks in June through July and September through October. Preventative measures include sleeping under insecticide-treated bed nets and regularly spraying indoor areas with insecticides. Members of the community who may be infected are tested for malaria and treated if any infection is detected. Treating malaria in the early stages reduces the possibility of serious complications.In January 2021 — just before Seek and Destroy was initiated — 2,459 people in the community were tested for malaria, and 1,984 people tested positive and were treated. Larval sites were identified and treated in February and March, and weekly surveillance and treatment were conducted in April and May. By June, only 533 community members required testing for malaria, and just 2 people tested positive. June normally coincides with a peak in malaria infections. The number of adult female Anopheles mosquitos detected in 120 randomly selected homes was also reduced from hundreds to zero.Different Species, Same StrategyThe strategy of killing eggs and larvae is the same regardless of the type of mosquito, where they live, or the disease they may carry. Other viral diseases transmitted by mosquitos include dengue fever, chikungunya fever, yellow fever, and Japanese encephalitis, as the World Health Organization explains.It's currently unclear whether this smartphone and drone approach can be effective against other disease-spreading insects. According to the University of Southern Florida newsroom, the technology used in Uganda is being adapted for black fly larvae, which can transmit a parasitic disease that causes blindness. However, what is clear is that innovative engineering and clever problem solving is spurring leaps forward in how we tackle worldwide medical problems.Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

App-Enabled Drones Could Help Stop the Spread of Infectious Diseases

The origin of American Sign Language starts with an encounter in 1814 between a young traveling minister, Thomas Gallaudet, and a nine-year-old deaf and mute girl, Alice Cogswell.  At a time when loss of hearing or speech was not well understood — and even considered by some as a mental disorder or punishment — Gallaudet broke through barriers to create a new language. He also established a school for the deaf in New England that still operates today. His work profoundly improved the lives of deaf people in America and laid the groundwork for assistive technology for the deaf that advances the communication and language abilities of people who cannot hear well or talk.  The Minister and the Misfit  Gallaudet hailed from Philadelphia and earned a master's degree from Yale College, now the undergraduate college of Yale University, in New Haven, Connecticut, with aspirations of becoming a lawyer or a minister. But he'd been born with an underlying health condition that caused him to be short of breath and lag behind others. A couple of years after landing a job as a lawyer at a prominent firm, Gallaudet's health problems forced him to resign. Undeterred, he went on to obtain a degree in divinity from Andover Theological Seminary in Massachusetts, but again, his illness prevented him from accepting a permanent job as a pastor. Frustrated, but still filled with a sense of purpose, he began traveling throughout New England to provide basic education in religion and American history to children in small towns that did not have schoolteachers.  Around this time, he returned from his journeys to visit his parents in Hartford, Connecticut. In the book, "A World of Knowing A Story," authors Andy Russell Bowen and Elaine Wadsworth write that, while sitting outside one day watching the neighborhood kids play, Gallaudet noticed a young girl playing by herself. He was told by the other children that the girl's name was Alice and that she couldn't hear or speak. Gallaudet could relate to the girl being alone, as he himself was sickly and a misfit among his friends as a child. He tried to communicate with Alice but was unsuccessful. Using a stick, he scratched H-A-T in the dirt and then pointed to his hat. She did not seem to understand, so he repeated it several times, tossing the hat to the ground. "He was thinking about giving up, when all of a sudden, Alice snatched the hat from the ground, plopped it back on her head, and waved her finger at the three letters," Bowen and Wadsworth detail. Alice understood. From there, Gallaudet taught the young girl how to write her name. Excited and proud, Alice rushed to tell her father, Mason Cogswell, a physician, about her new skill.  Dr. Cogswell was impressed. He asked Gallaudet to continue teaching Alice how to communicate. Since no standard language existed in the United States, the minister and the young girl came up with hand signals to express meaning and words. On Cogswell's invitation, Gallaudet spent hours in the doctor's extensive library, researching deafness. At the same time, Cogswell, who had learned of the existence of schools for the deaf in England and France, began to form the idea of starting a similar school in the United States. The doctor raised funds and asked Gallaudet to travel to Europe to learn from experts there.  American Sign Language Comes of Age  Gallaudet traveled to the Braidwoods Academy for the Deaf and Dumb in England, according to Penn State University's Libraries. (In those days, "dumb" referred to people who could not speak). Instructors there relied on a proprietary method of lip-reading and hand gestures and were reluctant to share their methods without restrictions. For instance, they expected Gallaudet to teach at their academy for three years and, upon returning to the States, keep what he learned as a secret. He declined the invitation.  But as with other obstacles Gallaudet had faced in his life, he would find a way around this one. It turned out that while Gallaudet was in England, two instructors from a deaf school in France were in London to share their knowledge. Gallaudet attended the demonstration and was amazed as the two men, Jean Massieu and Laurent Clerc, communicated exclusively in sign language. Afterward, Gallaudet spoke with them, and they invited him to their school in Paris. He stayed for two months, learning all he could. When it came time to leave, Gallaudet invited Clerc to return with him to Connecticut and help start Dr. Cogswell's school for the deaf. Clerc agreed.  The American Asylum at Hartford for the Education and Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb opened on April 15, 1817 — a date that is now marked every year as ASL Day. (The school changed its name in 1895 to The American School for the Deaf.) Gallaudet served as the principal of the school, as well as an instructor alongside Clerc. Six students, including Alice, made up the first class. As Bowen and Wadsworth explain, both Clerc and Gallaudet combined "the French method of signing with the new signs and facial expressions that [Gallaudet's] students used. Together, teachers and pupils were creating an American sign language, one that fit their own special needs and reflected their own lives and thoughts."  Gallaudet fulfilled his sense of purpose and lived a happy life. By the time he retired in 1830, deaf schools had popped up in New York, Kentucky, Pennsylvania and Ohio. Fifty years later in 1880, the National Association of the Deaf was established in the United States. Loss of hearing and speech were no longer considered a mental disorder nor a punishment.  Assistive Technology for the Deaf  Around the turn of the century, the Industrial Revolution's engine churned out inventive people from every corner of life. In 1892, American electrical engineer and inventor Miller Reese Hutchison patented the first electrical hearing aid to benefit a friend of his who could not hear, according to Alabama Pioneers. It would be the first of many assistive devices for the deaf to come to market as the country turned the corner into the 20th century.  In the 1960s, deaf scientist Robert Weitbrecht invented the teletypewriter (TTY), a technology that resembled today's text messaging. However, back then, everyone had a landline, and it was impossible for deaf people to call their friends or families. But Weitbrecht's device, which had a keyboard and a display, allowed a person to communicate over the phone line with another person that also had a TTY. The caller would place the telephone receiver on the device, dial the number and, after the person answered, type the reason for their call. Abbreviations such as "GA," which meant "go ahead," and "SK," which meant "stop keying," became a vital part of communications, according to the National Deaf Center, and could be considered the first chat slang to be used over a phone call — decades before LOL (laugh out loud) and JK (just kidding) became ubiquitous in instant messaging apps.  Today, digital hearing aids and cochlear implants (a surgically implanted neuroprosthetic device) can provide those with a loss of hearing profound improvements. Closed captioning, text messaging and streaming video help to bridge the gap between those who can hear and those who cannot. Surely, Thomas Gallaudet would be amazed to see the world through the door he opened. 

How American Sign Language Got Its Start

Can you digest gum? As a child, you may have heard that a piece of swallowed gum will stay in your stomach for seven years. That hopefully convinced you to wrap up your chewy treat after the flavor ran out and throw it neatly in the trash. Less considerate people might stick their gum where some poor soul will need to scrape off the slowly solidifying, disgusting mess. But is swallowing gum that bad? Let's explore what really happens when you swallow gum. History of Chewing Gum Humans have been chewing gum derived from trees since the Stone Age. In Denmark, a 5,700-year-old piece of birch tar with human toothmarks was found filled with well-preserved DNA from the chewer and her recent meal, as described by Smithsonian magazine. The ancient Greeks chewed the sweet resin of mastic trees. Native Americans chewed resin from spruce trees, and European colonists picked up the habit. Farther south, ancient Mayans and Aztecs chewed sap from sapodilla trees. The first patented chewing gum sticks hit US markets in 1871. According to Britannica, they were manufactured from sapodilla sap that was harvested much like natural rubber. During World War II, chewing gum was included in US military rations, and soldiers helped spread its popularity overseas. Soon, there weren't enough sapodilla trees to keep up with demand. After World War II, chemists learned to create artificial gum bases using synthetic polymers, which are essentially different types of synthetic rubber. Today, many gum manufacturers use butyl rubber, which is also used to make inner tubes, tires and basketballs. A few companies still use natural sap. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates gum as a non-food item, so manufacturers need to use "food grade" materials but don't need to disclose their ingredients. The rubbery gum base is typically mixed with softeners such as paraffin wax or vegetable oil for elasticity. Additional ingredients include natural or artificial sweeteners, flavors such as mint or fruit, colors, preservatives, and perhaps a candy coat. Through clever marketing and applying the science of taste, the gum industry had an estimated $32 billion in global sales in 2019, according to Statista. What Happens When You Swallow Gum? Except for the gum base, the ingredients in gum can easily be broken down by the digestive system. It's the gum base that sticks to sidewalks, school desks, human hair, and dental work. So what happens if you swallow a piece? Can you digest gum? No, but it doesn't stick to your stomach for seven years either. It follows the same path as anything else you swallow, including indigestible items such as popcorn kernels, watermelon seeds, small pieces of bone and the fiber base of raw vegetables. Food enters the gastrointestinal (GI) system through the mouth. Chewing mechanically breaks food into smaller pieces, and enzymes in saliva start the process of chemically breaking down molecules so they can be absorbed. Anything that is swallowed, including gum, then enters the esophagus and is carried into the stomach. The stomach mixes food with acid and digestive enzymes until it becomes a slurry of juices and solids. This slurry then drains into the small intestine, where bacteria and more enzymes help break down the solid material. Nutrients are absorbed through the walls of the small intestine. Muscle contractions move the slurry through the small intestine, which is about 20 feet long in adults. Anything left is then transferred to the large intestine, which is also called the colon. Water is absorbed through the walls of the colon until the remaining material is the appropriate consistency to be expelled as waste. If you swallow a piece of gum, it will typically exit the gastrointestinal track within a few days and be largely unaffected by the process. What's the Worst That Could Happen? While occasionally swallowing a piece of gum is typically no big deal, serious problems can arise. For small children — who may not understand that gum should not be swallowed — gum is a choking hazard like coins or small toys that can block the esophagus. If these items make it through the esophagus into the stomach, anything smaller than a quarter will usually pass through the GI tract and be expelled as waste. However, indigestible items can clump together to form a bezoar, which is too large to move normally through the GI tract. This can clog the system and lead to severe abdominal pain, constipation and vomiting. A bezoar may require surgical removal. While rare, there are some documented medical horror stories that involve swallowing gum. A publication in the journal Pediatrics described three cases of children who suffered gastrointestinal blockages because they regularly swallowed gum. The youngest child was 1.5 years old and had a mass stuck in the esophagus containing four coins held together by a large wad of gum. Two other cases involved 4.5-year-olds with bowel obstructions. One child had been suffering from constipation for two years, and was offered gum five to seven times a day to encourage trying to go to the bathroom. This child always swallowed the gum. Doctors found and removed a "taffy-like" mass from this child's rectum consisting mostly of gum. The other 4.5 year old also regularly swallowed gum and had a "multi-colored mass" of chewing gum removed. This is not just a problem for small children. Consider the case of an 18-year-old Israeli female reported in the journal Gastrointestinal Endoscopy. She had been chewing and swallowing at least five pieces of gum per day for several years and was admitted to the hospital with stomach pain. Her stomach was filled with solid masses of gum and food material, which had to be removed in multiple stages. So, feel free to enjoy your gum just like the ancient Greeks, Mayans and Native Americans — just put it in the trash when you're done. There's no good reason to test your GI tract with tire rubber. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery in science, technology and engineering.

Is Swallowing Gum Dangerous?

Key Takeaways  Cryonics is the process of freezing people immediately after death and reviving them when cures for their disease or injury are found. Freezing isn't the problem — thawing is. If crystals form during the thaw, patients don't wake up. While cryo tech has a future for treating atrial fibrillation, it's potential as a human preserver is DOA.Death is the end. The curtain call we can't avoid. The rolling credits we can't escape — no matter how enjoyable the show.But what if there was another way? A way to circumvent seemingly certain biological processes and leverage future medical advancements? For some hopeful humans, there is cryopreservation, also called "cryonics." Most scientists give this technology the cold shoulder, but it's impossible to discount the dream: What if corporations have cracked the code to eternal life? Will cryonics work? And if it does, what does it mean for the future of humankind?The Big ChillCryopreservation has a simple premise: Freeze humans immediately after death and keep them frozen until such time as scientists find a cure for their disease — anything from cancer to heart failure to old age. Once a cure is found patients in cryostasis are thawed out, cured and resume their lives, potentially decades or centuries later.The idea has been around for more than 50 years: As noted by PBS, there's still a story floating around that after he died, Walt Disney was cryogenically frozen and stored in liquid nitrogen. And who can forget the iconic scenes of Han Solo being frozen in "carbonite" and then resurrected? Sure, lightsabers and Force-wielding Jedi were cool, but so was the idea that humans could (even against their will) be frozen and thawed again.Sub-Zero Science, Simply Put? SubparSo how does cryonics work? According to Particle, it starts after patients are declared legally dead. Cryonic technicians drain their blood and replace it with a solution designed to preserve organs, then follow it up with a "cryoprotectant" solution that freezes cells without causing the crystal formation that would damage them when returned to normal temperature. Bodies are then placed in tanks of liquid nitrogen for long-term storage — with the caveat that the nitrogen must be regularly topped up to maintain frozen-human freshness. While the nitrogen freezing process itself doesn't require electricity or mechanical intervention to keep people frozen, if tanks are left unattended for any length of time, the results could be ... unpleasant.Reactions from the scientific community haven't been particularly glowing — the typical answer to "will cryonics work" is perhaps best articulated by a 2015 MIT Technology Review piece titled The False Science of Cryonics. As the piece notes, beyond issues of keeping organs and tissues healthy are the issues of recreating human consciousness once terminated by death. Author Michael Hendricks notes that even attempting to reconstruct the brain activity of the biology's best-understood creature — the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans — would be a daunting task, despite total knowledge of the creature's genes, cells and synaptic connectivity.Cold Hard CashDespite cold shoulders from the scientific community at large, cryopreservation firms are gaining market ground. According to Business Wire, growth in this vertical is driven by "government investment in the medical sector and increasing deaths caused by incurable disease," while strict government regulations and the lack of skilled medical personnel represent major challenges. Still, firms like the Alcor Life Extension Foundation and the Cryonics Institute are attracting new customers — Alcor charges $200,000 for the privilege of being iced, while the Cryonics Institute asks for a cool $28,000.As noted by Forbes, enough people are now spending on cryonics to drive the creation of "revival trusts," legal documents that set aside funds for the newly deceased, immediately frozen and soon-to-be-resurrected. While some lawyers find the concept ridiculous, others are on board, offering revival trust terms of anywhere from 50 to 200 years.MeltdownBeyond scientific skepticism and lack of skilled staff, two large problems persist for cryogenics.The first comes after we discover cures to incurable diseases: How do frozen humans get back up to livable temperatures again without complete systems failure? It's a significant issue for two reasons — even if crystal formation is prevented during cooling, crystals almost always form during the warm-up process, and all parts of the human body must be brought up to temperature at the same time, despite differing densities. It's easy to see the imminent disaster if brains warm up ahead of beating hearts, or limbs thaw out before blood can start pumping, said Inverse.Han Solo's unfreezing in "Star Wars" presents a possible option: Super-fast uniform warming that both prevents crystal formation and preserves body functions. The caveat? Current technology is nowhere near the mark.The second big problem stems from current cryonics procedures: As noted by Science Alert, one very costly cryonics lab is being sued because — despite an alleged contract stating the opposite — they froze only the head of a client and shipped his body back to family members without notification.Will Cryonics Work?Short answer: No.Not in its current form. While it's possible to cool and indefinitely freeze humans after death, warming them up to receive the cure for their incurable disease will almost inevitably kill them — if they haven't already been accidentally decapitated. This isn't to say there's no market for cold-enhanced technologies: According to the Medical Device Network, cryo technologies are now being tested for use in treating atrial fibrillation (Afib) patients.If you were looking forward to a frozen future, prepare for a cold dose of reality: Despite a lucrative market, the concept of scientifically sound cryopreservation is dead on arrival.While cryonics isn't a hot topic for Northrop Grumman, we're on the leading edge of advanced space technology. Check it out.

Will Cryonics Work? Science, Speculation and the Cold Shoulder

A new study on the science of taste suggests that the taste of sugar could make people feel more full, therefore helping to regulate appetite. But before you rush to grab a cookie to curb your hunger, consider that other studies have shown that sugar and fat trick the brain into wanting more food. Nutrition is complicated. Researchers are trying to understand the complicated physiology of hunger, satiety and overeating. A better understanding of the relationship between flavor and hunger could lead to new treatments for obesity, a disease that is common, serious and costly, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Does Sweet Taste Reduce Appetite? The new study, published in the journal Nutrients, was conducted by a team of Austrian and German researchers. They explored how flavor might trigger our bodies to respond to what we eat. In the age of nutrition apps and fad diets, many people are familiar with the concept of counting calories. The basic idea is if you want to lose weight, you need to burn more calories than you consume. But the human body runs on biology, which is often much more complicated than mathematics. The Austrian-German team examined how the perception of sweetness affected the regulation of satiety — in other words, whether tasting something sweet made you feel hungry or full. The study was limited — it only looked at 27 healthy male adults — but the results strongly suggest that more research on this topic would be worthwhile. The participants tasted different forms of sugar and then waited two hours before eating breakfast. They either had glucose (simple sugar), sucrose (table sugar) or one of the sugars mixed with lactisole, a substance that reduces the sensation of sweetness. All of the solutions had the same energy content so that the researchers could isolate sweetness as a factor. Basically, everyone consumed the same amount of sugar, although some of the sugar tasted sweet and some did not. When participants had the sucrose and lactisole cocktail, they ate around 13% more calories at breakfast. The researchers also noted that those participants had reduced body temperatures. Through blood tests, they also found lower concentrations of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that the researchers note has an appetite-controlling effect. "This result suggests that sucrose, regardless of its energy content, modulates the regulation of satiety and energy intake via the sweet taste receptor," Barbara Lieder, one of the study's authors, said in an announcement released by ScienceDaily. Interestingly, they did not see the same results with the glucose and lactisole test solution. Additional research could help to explain why, but the researchers suggest it could be because glucose and sucrose activate the sweet receptor in different ways. How Taste Buds Work The new study reveals that taste and hunger are connected in ways that may be more complicated than we previously thought. Plus, there is more than one type of hunger. According to Scientific American, metabolic (homeostatic) hunger — i.e., when your stomach growls — is driven by physiological necessity. But hedonic hunger is a powerful desire for food, even if your body doesn't actually need it. This type of hunger is linked to the brain's reward circuit. Similar to the way that drugs and gambling give us temporary "rewards" that lead to addiction, extremely sweet or fatty foods can trigger a response. According to Scientific American, eating these foods can make our taste buds send signals to various regions of the brain, which releases dopamine. If this happens too often, it desensitizes the system, so overeaters end up needing even more sugar or fat to reach the previous dopamine release, leaving them always wanting more food. Consequences of Taste and Hunger Studies that link taste to hunger and satiety could help people better understand which types of food could trick us into better nutrition. Further studies on the science of taste could nail down the details and help us understand how certain flavors of food trigger hormone responses so that we can make healthy choices. Sometimes, our bodies need more intervention than simple nutritional advice. Patients who have obesity, for example, may need medication or surgery to treat the disease. Scientific studies can lead to drug development, such as a medicine that could mimic bariatric surgery, according to Scientific American. Further studies could help to explain how taste buds work, especially in the gut. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Sugar and the Science of Taste

"Bird Box" has been a massive success for Netflix. According to The Verge, more than 45 million accounts streamed the movie in the week after its premiere, and the difficult scenarios faced by the film's blindfolded protagonist proved so popular that viewers have been covering their own eyes to attempt similar feats. The risky nature of these "'Bird Box' Challenges" prompted Netflix to post a Twitter warning. Their mass appeal ties neatly into evolving discussions about the nature of the movie's antagonists: Some speculate that instead of aliens or demons, a mass psychogenic illness explains the events of the film. So let's dive in — when it comes to "Bird Box" theories, does a mass mental illness make sense? The Story So Far If you're not familiar with the "Bird Box" phenomenon, here's a quick primer. *Spoiler Alert* A mysterious event — called "The Problem" — causes waves of suicides across the world. Upon seeing something nearby, most affected individuals attempt to kill themselves; when The Problem comes to Los Angeles, main character Malorie flees to a safe house. Other members of the house speculate that invisible or alien entities are responsible for the outbreak, and the windows are covered in an attempt to protect those inside. Other survivors approach the house — some have seen these "entities" and, instead of killing themselves, attempt to force others to view them as well. Eventually, group members blindfold themselves for safety. Though invisible, the entities drive Malorie's pet birds into a frenzy. It is later established that the entities can cause gusts of wind and speak to blindfolded individuals in voices they find familiar, attempting to convince them to remove their blindfolds.  Because the entities are never seen and their method of action is never explained, many "Bird Box" theories have emerged: Characters in the film speculate that ancient demons have found humanity wanting, while others suggest aliens are attempting to conquer the planet. Alternative Explanation: Mass Psychogenic Illness Mass psychogenic illness (MPI) offers a potential scientific remedy to this movie madness. Also called mass sociogenic illness, MPI is defined by SAGE Journals as "a nervous system disturbance characterized by the rapid spread of illness signs and symptoms among members of a cohesive social group, for which there is no corresponding organic origin." In other words, one member of group begins exhibiting strange or dangerous behavior, and others quickly follow. As noted by Family Doctor, these illnesses have occurred for hundreds of years around the world but are often poorly documented. Common symptoms include:   Headache  Dizziness  Faintness  Weakness  Feelings of choking  Often, these illnesses have environmental "triggers" — smells, sights or sounds that make members of a group believe they are in danger. Combined with sudden physical reactions from the initial observer, mass psychogenic events can quickly spread across large groups. Cultural Impact Several notable instances of MPI have been documented, including the infamous "Dancing Plague" of 1518. As noted by Ozy, a woman named Frau Troffea began manically dancing in the streets of Strasbourg and wouldn't stop. Others joined her over the following weeks, and some died when they refused to stop for food or water. MPI also appeared more recently. According to the New England Journal of Medicine, in November 1998, a high school teacher in Tennessee noticed a "gasoline-like" smell and quickly displayed signs of headache, nausea, shortness of breath and dizziness. Over the next few days, hundreds of staff and students were hospitalized with similar symptoms, but no physical cause was found despite extensive government investigations. NCBI describes another MPI case: In October 2011, teenage girls in Leroy, New York, all developed "facial tics, muscle twitching and garbled speech." Folk theories attribute the cause to a local dump releasing toxic fumes, but no definitive cause has been identified. Thinking Outside the Box Could mass psychogenic illness account for the mass hysteria and suicidal behavior seen in "Bird Box"? Some of the basic framework certainly applies — i.e., humans living in social groups exposed to sudden behavioral changes related to environmental stimuli. If we accept the film's narrative conceit, however, the theory of MPI becomes harder to defend. Some of those exposed to the stimuli exhibit physical changes; those who don't commit suicide display modified irises, which other survivors check for prior to granting safe house entry. It's evident that other animals can sense the presence of the stimuli. While gusts of wind could be misattributed to intention rather than random physical phenomena, when characters in the film hear a voice encouraging them to remove their blindfolds, the voice is shown as external and malicious rather than as internal narrative. Last but not least is the problem of free will. While MPIs can cause observable physical effects such as nausea, muscle twitching and shortness of breath, there's no indication that they can cause overwhelming suicidal thoughts or remove free will. While some of those afflicted with the Dancing Plague did refuse to stop and eat, many survived by taking breaks at night and resuming the next day. The core concept of "Bird Box" rests on the idea that whatever force — alien, demon or biological agent — is present in this fictional universe can cause people to experience thoughts of such intensity and despair that they choose to end their own lives rather than live with what they see. No recorded MPIs include this type of forced action compelled by overwhelming emotion. Flight of Fancy Bottom line? While characters in "Bird Box" display some of the characteristics associated with mass psychogenic illnesses, the physical changes caused by observed stimuli and the sudden, intrusive nature of suicidal thoughts make it likely that a far more fictional — and sparsely defined — threat accounts for this terrifying world of blindfolds and birds. If you're experiencing suicidal feelings, get help: Call the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1-800-273-8255 or IMAlive at 1-800-784-2433.

"Bird Box" Theories: Is Mass Psychogenic Illness the Real Monster Here?

Rapid advances in healthcare technology trends, such as hand-held genome sequencers and cancer treatment drugs, are shaking up the healthcare industry. In the wake of World Health Day on April 7, let's take a closer look at some important new medical technology.   Healthcare IoT   Some medical devices can now alert consumers to whether they're likely to need treatment. The "internet of health things" translates data into easily accessible information and communicates with other objects, machines or people. For instance, Sentrian, a remote patient intelligence company, uses a platform to detect 88 percent of hospital visits five days in advance with a 3 percent false positive rate, according to ReadWrite. In addition, preventative healthcare can harness the connectivity and monitoring abilities of new medical technology to help patients better adhere to treatment programs. According to Accenture's 2017 survey, approximately 73 percent of healthcare executives said they thought IoHT would be "disruptive" to the healthcare industry within three years.   Healthcare Information Storage   If you've visited a doctor's office recently, you might have been surprised that they still use pen and paper in a world where pretty much everything has gone digital. Finally, that's starting to change. In its iOS 11.3 release, Apple allowed consumers to see their electronic medical records, empowering them to update their doctors better about their medical histories. As Computerworld noted, thanks to such access "'in the provider-to-patient-to-provider scenario, a physician may share test results with a patient and the patient may then schedule a follow-up appointment.'"   Hand-Held Genome Sequencer   The Human Genome Project in 1990 was the result of 13 years of collaboration and millions of dollars in research. Flash forward 28 years, and now genome mapping can be performed with a hand-held device, according to the BBC. Such sequencing can be used to analyze the DNA of cancers to determine the best course of treatment. Examining the genetic code of different bacterias could also help doctors detect antibiotic resistance early.   Artificial Pancreas   The FDA last year approved a hybrid closed-loop insulin delivery system that uses computer algorithms to provide an adequate level of insulin to the body, according to CNBC. The device could provide hope for the 1.25 million Americans living with Type 1 diabetes.   Looking Ahead   While we don't yet know the extent of the impact new healthcare technology trends will have, it is encouraging to see a rise in informed patients. With more accessible data, there is also hope for progress in curing diseases like cancer, diabetes and heart disease. Though we don't know what the future holds, the notion of such progress continuing into the 2020s should be a major cause for optimism.   

Healthcare Technology Trends to Keep an Eye Out For

Programmable microstructures hold the promise of giving tiny devices greater flexibility and functionality — capabilities that could reshape the delivery of healthcare and even improve the exploration of planets.However, there's long been one large hurdle to these miniature devices accomplishing big tasks: They not only have to be microscopic, but they also need to bend and twist in a way that suits the job in front of them. Cilia in cellular organisms have those capabilities, but not for wide-scale applications. Recent scientific advances might finally have a solution: artificial cilia that can be more flexible than the real thing.Harvard researchers say they have developed a single-material, single-stimuli microstructure that can outmaneuver even living cilia. In other words, unlike other developments in the field, their invention needs only one trigger — in this case, light — to move, and requires only one material for its design. Their creation could change "the ways we design materials and devices for a variety of applications, including robotics, medicine and information technologies," as one of the researchers notes.Recreating Helpful CiliumAs you might remember from high school biology class, cilia can be found in almost every type of cell in animals. According to Sciencing, these hair-like organelles are typically no more than 10 micrometers long and, among many biological roles, move beneficial cells as well as harmful materials such as pathogens.Scientists and engineers admire the productivity of these tiny workers and have tried to replicate their nimbleness, but creating artificial cilia has been challenging. It usually requires fabrication processes that involve several steps as well as different stimuli that will trigger the microstructure's movement — basically, too much activity behind development and too many impetuses to function.An invention by North Carolina State University and Elon University brilliantly exemplifies this complexity: synthetic cilia that bend into new shapes in response to a magnetic field and return to their original shape when exposed to light. As Advanced Science News explains, this creation comes about through several steps. It begins with dipping a mold into a polymer that's dissolved through an organic solvent, and then, once the solvent is drawn off, the cilia take shape.Simple to Build, Simple to MoveResearchers at the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS) say they have designed an artificial cilium with a single material. Instead of relying on "complex multi-component materials," they instead use only a photoresponsive liquid crystal elastomer.They say it also functions simply: When exposed to light, its building blocks realign and the structure changes shape. And as those changes occur, a cycle of perpetuation takes hold. A new spot on the microstructure will also be exposed to light, changing that area as well. This feedback loop creates a self-propelled and endlessly programmable microstructure. "Once you turn the light on, it does all its own work," says one of the Harvard researchers.The shape changing of the artificial cilia drives the "endlessly reconfigurable" twisting and turning that will hopefully make microstructures "potentially transformative" for a wide range of applications that require repetitive and defined movement, the researchers say.Ideal for "Soft" ApplicationsMicrostructures are all about flexibility. In a paper submitted last year to the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, another Harvard SEAS team explained how their work in designing shape-shifting materials could similarly create new, dynamic uses for application. "These structures allow for independent control of the geometry and mechanics, laying the foundation for engineering functional shapes using a new type of morphable unit cell," a researcher explained.By all accounts, artificial cilia accomplish a new way of configuring structural elements — which spurs robotics potential. Instead of facing limitations with "hard" components, soft robotics driven by artificial cilia could achieve tasks that have been out of reach.For instance, a recent Georgia Tech College of Engineering story detailed how soft, flexible robots could revolutionize healthcare. Their wide range of motion means they could navigate catheters or endoscopes to the right places in the body, all while minimizing stress and damage to tissue. Amputees could have prosthetics that mimic the softness and suppleness of skin. Stroke patients who lost mobility could have their full range of motion restored from joint supports powered by soft robotics.The possibilities don't end on Earth. NASA is studying how soft robots could explore the tight spots of a moon or planet, as Space.com explains. That's a long way from what you learned about cilia in high school.Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Artificial Cilia: More Flexible Than the Real Thing

The use of electric therapy for chronic pain treatment is an old idea, but it's getting new attention as researchers and doctors look for alternative ways to alleviate severe, long-lasting pain. In ancient times, physicians discovered that the sting of electric fish could sometimes leave patients feeling better by reducing their chronic pain, according to Oxford Academic. By the 19th century, pioneering electrical researchers found that the nerves of living tissue responded to electric stimulation. Electrical treatment of pain fell out of favor as it became associated with crank theories and dubious gadgets, but by the 1970s, researchers were giving electric therapy (also called electrotherapy) a second look. Today, amid the risks of opioid use in pain treatment and the limitations of pharmaceutical alternatives, the use of electric treatment for chronic pain therapy is seeing a new surge of interest and development. Electric Fish and Frankenstein's Monster According to Oxford Academic, in the early days of the Roman empire, physician Scribonius Largus noted that chronic pain in some patients could be alleviated by the electric shock produced by a torpedo fish. Scattered reports of the use of eels and other electric fish for pain treatment continued into American colonial times. Meanwhile, experimenters such as Benjamin Franklin found that nerves responded to electric impulses by contracting. Clearly, electricity played a role in life processes. The potential role of electricity in medicine would enter popular culture a few decades later in a big way — but not as a medical miracle. As a separate report from Oxford Academic recounts, Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein," published in 1814, gave bio-electricity an unforgettable starring role in her new, scientific twist on the horror story. Electric Snake Oil? As electrical technology developed, new devices became available. And, in spite of Frankenstein, enthusiasm was widespread. As Oxford Academic notes, a Boston newspaper reported that "cases of rheumatism, disease of the liver, stomach and kidneys, lung complaints, paralysis, lost vitality, nervous disability, female complaints" were cured by one such "electrifier." But electric therapy for chronic pain treatment gradually slipped into the ranks of medically dubious treatments. The late 19th and early 20th century marked the golden age of snake oil, patent medicines and other medical quackery, and electrical gadgets were dismissed as belonging to the same class. The Electric Pain Treatment Revival By the 1960s and 1970s, serious medical researchers were again looking at electricity as a means of chronic pain treatment, as Oxford Academic points out, and they were getting effective results in pain reduction. These treatments remained quasi-experimental due to technical limitations in the devices and the limited number of doctors trained with the technology. However, in the 1980s, effective transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation devices — often called TENS devices — became commercially available. Awareness and use of electric therapy for pain began to grow. However, pharmaceutical methods of pain treatment were still more widely available and regarded as simpler and less costly. In recent years, attention is turning again to the potential for electric pain treatment. As Time magazine reports, the pharmaceutical industry has hit something of a wall in developing new drugs for pain treatment. At the same time, as the National Institutes of Health (NIH) explains, misuse of opioids has reached epidemic levels, pushing the pain treatment community to look for alternatives to these powerful but extremely dangerous drugs. Looking Forward Meanwhile, the sophistication and capability of TENS devices continue to grow. Medical News Today reports that, though clinical research into electrical chronic pain treatment remains limited, a growing number of doctors and patients are finding electricity to be an effective means of alleviating pain from a wide variety of causes. Some of the conditions that TENS devices have shown effectiveness in treating include fibromyalgia, arthritis and spinal cord injury. Other forms of electrical stimulation may prove useful in treating these and other serious conditions. In fact, Nature reports that three paralyzed people were able to regain some control of their leg muscles through the use of electric therapy. More research surely needs to be done into the effectiveness and applications for electricity-based treatments — and no doubt, this form of therapy may need some image rehabilitation. But it may return the favor by giving science and medicine a wider range of ways to rehabilitate us. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Chronic Pain Treatment May Get a Jolt From Electric Therapy

If you've spent any time looking into diets that promote weight loss, you've likely heard of "negative calorie foods." These are foods that supposedly require more energy to digest than they provide in calories. A common example is celery — a crunchy vegetable filled with fiber and water that provides just six calories per stalk, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture's searchable database.But is it really possible to have foods with negative calories?Negative Calorie Food CandidatesMost of the so-called "negative calorie foods" are vegetables and fruits with high water and fiber content. The lowest calorie foods are vegetables, which typically have less sugar than fruits. Listed below are the number of calories in 100 grams of some common vegetables and fruits, and some meat and dairy items. The foods are listed from fewest to most calories, with the water content included in parentheses. 	Celery: 14 calories (95% water) 	Zucchini: 17 calories (95% water) 	Tomatoes: 18 calories (94% water) 	Green peppers: 20 calories (94% water) 	Romaine lettuce: 20 calories (95% water) 	Spinach: 23 calories (91% water) 	Watermelon: 30 calories (91% water) 	Strawberries: 32 calories (91% water) 	Broccoli: 34 calories (89% water) 	Grapefruit: 39 calories (90% water) 	Peaches: 39 calories (89% water) 	Onions: 40 calories (89% water) 	Carrots: 41 calories (89% water) 	Blueberries: 57 calories (84% water) 	Apples: 60 calories (85% water) 	Whole milk yogurt: 78 calories (85% water) 	Roasted chicken breast: 79 calories (77% water) 	Baked potato: 93 calories (75% water) 	85% lean ground beef: 232 calories (60% water) 	Cheddar cheese: 409 calories (36% water)People react in different ways to different diets, and if you are interested in changing your weight, you should consult a dietician. But on a basic level, if someone is looking to maintain or lose weight, an advantage of high fiber veggies and fruits is they fill you up and take longer to digest than highly processed foods. Therefore, they don't provide a lot of calories but prevent you from feeling hungry — which helps you eat less. Many fruits and vegetables are rich in vitamins and minerals, and are thus an essential part of a healthy diet.However, limiting yourself to just a few low-calorie foods is inadvisable, according to the Mayo Clinic, because you can easily miss out on essential nutrients including protein and fat. The UK National Health Service generally recommends 2,000 calories a day for women and 2,500 calories a day for men. If you decided to limit yourself to foods that contain roughly 20 calories per 100 grams (~200 calories per 1 kilogram), you would need to consume about 10 kilograms (22 pounds) of those foods a day to maintain your weight. That's about 17 heads of romaine lettuce or 61 large green peppers. So it's certainly possible to lose weight by consuming lots of veggies and fruits, but you'd want to mix it up by including other foods with different nutrients.All of this still doesn't quite answer the question of whether there are foods with negative calories, or foods that require more energy to digest than they provide in calories.Energy Required to Digest FoodEating food and digesting food takes energy. In a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine, the act of chewing gum burns 11 calories per hour. A stalk of celery provides 6 calories, which would be offset by a half hour of chewing. Clearly, the act of chewing isn't enough to make celery a negative calorie food.What about the energy required to digest food, absorb the nutrients and dispose of the waste? According to a review published in the Journal of the American College of Nutrition, approximately 60% of a person's total daily energy expenditure is used for "basal metabolism," or the energy required to operate your various organ systems at rest. After eating, researchers have studied the "thermic effect of food," or when your metabolism increases after eating because your body is using energy to digest the food, absorb the nutrients and dispose of the waste. This increase in energy use after eating accounts for approximately 10% of total energy expenditure. The remaining ~30% of daily energy expenditure is used for the other activities of daily life — standing, walking, reading, socializing, preparing meals, intentional exercise, remembering website passwords, etc.For someone consuming 2,000 calories a day, 10% of total energy expenditure is 200 calories, which would be expected to go toward digesting and processing food. Assuming that nothing else changes when you decrease the number of calories consumed — which is unlikely to be true — eating a negative calorie diet would require eating less than 200 calories a day. That's less than four medium-sized apples. Yikes!Of course, eating and digesting would be impossible if it weren't for the "basal metabolism" that maintains all of your organ systems — the brain, cardiovascular system, digestive system, liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, immune system and so on. So eat your fruits and veggies as part of a healthy diet, and don't worry too much about the "negative calorie" label.Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Do Negative Calorie Foods Exist?

You likely think about what to eat every single day. After all, it's one of the basic requirements you need to survive. Yet you may not ruminate on what happens to your food after you eat it. How does the body break down food anyway? How do you process what you eat and how does your body use the nutrients? How long does it take?This article will examine the ins and outs (pun intended) of food digestion, including how digestion happens, what occurs within your body when you eat, how your system processes different ingredients and digestion time.How Is Food Digested?The digestive system is larger than you think. According to Johns Hopkins, it consists of "the mouth, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, large intestine and anus." All of these organs work together to ensure you can digest the food you eat.The process of digestion starts before you take a single bite — your sense of smell triggers extra saliva, which has enzymes that start the long process. The pancreas produces those enzymes, and after you swallow food, those enzymes mix with other digestive juices in your stomach. This watery mixture then moves to your small intestine, where the nutrients are extracted, and whatever is left moves through your large intestine and is excreted through the anus.Do Different Foods Digest at Different Rates?This description of digestion seems quite simple, but in reality it's quite complicated. The process of digestion takes, on average, several hours. You know that recommendation to eat protein to feel full? That's because protein, along with fat, takes longer to digest than carbohydrates.The type of food you're eating has a huge effect on the amount of time it takes to digest. Liquids are the fastest — water leaves the stomach in just 10 minutes. More complex liquids take up to an hour, while carbs like pasta and rice can take just 30 minutes. Add protein into the mix? You're looking at two to four hours, possibly even longer. Proteins take longer to digest because breaking them down into their component amino acids takes more time than digesting carbs or other foods.What Impacts Digestion Time? Is Faster Better?It's not just the kind of food you're eating that impacts digestion time. Other factors include what time of day you eat, gender (women digest more slowly than men), and age (the aging process slows down digestion, which is part of the reason elderly people have to keep an eye on their digestive health).Your body's natural circadian rhythms are also tied to your digestive system — eating when your body expects you to eat means that digestion happens faster. If you decide to eat a lot at 1 a.m., your digestive system likely isn't expecting it, and will process that food more slowly. Digestion is a very individualized process that varies from person to person; it's even possible that your body type has a significant impact on how you digest food.The rate of digestion could also provide health benefits. Generally speaking, the faster the digestion time, the better. Studies have shown that slower transit time through your digestive system is linked to increased harmful bacteria. Conventional thinking is that the more gut bacteria you have, the healthier your digestive system, but it turns out that isn't actually always the case. Longer digestion time and food sitting too long within your large intestine can produce harmful bacteria.If you want to prioritize your digestive health and pay attention to how your body breaks down food, eat a balanced diet (with lean proteins and fiber) and stay hydrated. Eat on a regular schedule, exercise regularly (digestion requires energy, after all!), sleep well, and keep stress and anxiety levels low.Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

How Does the Body Break Down Food?

We take it for granted that the sky is blue — but is that a matter of fact or a matter of perspective? Colorblindness is more common than you might think: About one in 12 men and one in 200 women experience the condition, according to Healthline. A deeper look at what it means to be colorblind can help us better understand the way others see the world, and maybe teach us something about vision itself. How Vision Works Vision begins in the retina, which is an important membrane that lines the surface of the back of the eye. The retina is made of several layers of tissue, including a layer of photoreceptors — the specialized cells that absorb light (photons) and convert it into signals that are sent to the brain to create an image. Scienceline explains that two types of photoreceptors help us see: rods and cones. Rods distinguish between black and white (and help us see in the dark), while cones work in bright light, allowing you to see color. People with normal vision have three types of cones that each detect a certain range of color: red, blue and green. In other words, different types of cones detect certain wavelengths of the visible light spectrum. Colorblindness, which can also be called color vision deficiency, happens when the pigments in those light-sensitive cones are missing or not working properly. Therefore, when a person has missing or dysfunctional pigments in their retina's cones, they may perceive colors differently than most people do. Often, people with colorblindness see colors less intensely and therefore have trouble distinguishing one color from another. In rare cases, people with severe color blindness may not see colors at all, or they could also have symptoms such as involuntary eye movements (nystagmus) or sensitivity to light, according to the National Eye Institute. Types of Colorblindness Most people are aware that colorblindness exists, but medical providers can help to diagnose the specific condition so that patients are aware of how their eyes affect their perception of colors. There are four main types of colorblindness. The variety depends on which cones are affected and whether the cones are dysfunctional or missing altogether. 1. Anomalous Trichromacy People who have anomalous trichromacy have all three types of cones, but one type doesn't work properly. Most commonly, people have trouble telling the difference between red and green or have trouble seeing the difference between some shades of red, yellow and green. Sometimes, the effects are so mild that people don't even realize they are colorblind. There are subcategories between different types of red-green colorblindness, according to Healthline. For example, people with protanomaly have the long wavelength cones ("L" cones), but the cones are dysfunctional, which causes red to look like green. Deuteranomaly, on the other hand, causes the opposite issues; the medium wavelength cones ("M" cones) of the eye are dysfunctional, causing green to look redder. 2. Dichromacy While anomalous trichromacy can make it hard to put together a puzzle or coordinate an outfit, dichromacy is a more serious version of color blindness. People with this condition don't just have dysfunctional cones. Rather, they are lacking a type of cone altogether, which means they can't see an entire section of the rainbow. 3. Monochromacy In monochromacy, two of the three cone types are missing. This rare condition can cause people to see mostly blurry images in black, white and shades of gray. According to MedlinePlus, not only do people who have blue cone monochromacy see fuzzy colorless images, but they also experience sensitivity to light (photophobia), nystagmus and nearsightedness (myopia). 4. Achromatopsia Complete colorblindness, also called achromatopsia, is a rare disorder in which all the cones are either missing or dysfunctional. In this case, people who are colorblind experience a complete lack of color vision, plus additional vision problems. (Note: Some experts consider blue cone monochromacy to be a form of achromatopsia because it involves vision impairment.) What Causes Colorblindness Most forms of colorblindness are genetic. In other words, most people who are colorblind inherited a gene for the condition from their parents. The genes associated with colorblindness are recessive and carried on the X chromosome, according to Scienceline, which explains why this condition is more common in males. Females typically have two X chromosomes, so even if they have a recessive colorblind gene, their other dominant gene can override it. However, males usually have only one X chromosome, so if they inherit the gene, they will be colorblind. Specifically, MedlinePlus explains that mutations in the OPN1LW, OPN1MW and OPN1SW genes cause color blindness. Genetic changes involving any of these genes can lead to an absence of cones or to the production of abnormal pigments or defective cones. Although most colorblindness is genetic, it can also be caused by damage to the eye or the brain. Colorblindness has been linked to:   Alcoholism  Congenital diseases  Cataracts  Side effects of medicine (such as chloroquine, which is used to treat malaria)  Diseases involving the retina  Exposure to toxic chemicals, such as organic solvents  Outlooks and Treatments Most of the time, colorblindness is mild and not considered a disability. It is a common condition, especially among white men. There is no cure, but according to NEI, most people who are colorblind are able to adjust and don't have problems with everyday activities. Treatments can include special eyewear that can help individuals differentiate colors. There are also apps where people can take pictures to identify colors. Plus, depending on what causes colorblindness (such as a side effect of a medicine), it could be temporary. Emerging gene therapy research could also provide some new ways to treat colorblindness. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

What Does It Mean to Be Colorblind?

Every movement is perfectly timed; every sound is precise. It's amazing to watch people with a natural affinity for rhythm in their element — often, they're incredible singers or dancers who seem almost superhuman in their ability to stay on beat. But where does it come from? Is it simply sheer grit paired with in-depth musical training? Or is it a biological process at work? Turns out it's a bit of both — and it all starts with auditory memory. So lean in, listen up and let's break down the beat. Dance Dance Evolution As noted by a study from the University of Amsterdam, "A sense of rhythm is a uniquely human characteristic." Study author Fleur Bouwer found that both training and concentration were unnecessary for people to bop with the beat — instead, it appears that we're biologically hardwired to have the music move us. Research into music and rhythm suggests human sociability as its evolutionary antecedent; connection over music helped humans foster stronger social connections. Along with recognizing and responding to rhythm, humans can also organize sounds into songs. By briefly storing notes we've just heard, our brains connect them to the next, and the next, and the next to form a rhythmic chain that can have us unconsciously tapping our feet, nodding our heads or clapping our hands. Audible Explanations But how does it all work? For that, we have to tackle auditory memory — also called echoic memory. A subcategory of sensory memory along with haptic (touch) and iconic (sight), echoic memory captures and holds audio information. When we hear sounds, our auditory nerves capture raw sonic information, convert it to electrical signals and transmit it to our brains. There, sounds make a brief stopover in the primary auditory cortex (PAC) before moving on to short-term memory, where meaning is assigned to the sounds we've just heard. These could be conversations, music or auditory information from the environment that's potentially relevant, such as the sound of a car approaching or someone calling your name. According to the "Handbook of Neurologic Music Therapy," auditory memory lasts between 2 and 4 seconds to give your brain time to process the information. This is longer than iconic memory, which typically lasts for 1000 milliseconds because "most salient visual information continues to be present for repeated scanning, whereas auditory information —due to its temporal waveform nature can never be re-scanned unless it is actually repeated." In other words, since your brain probably won't a get second chance to hear the exact same sound, more time is afforded to process and understand auditory input before it moves out of your short-term memory. Listen and Learn If we're predisposed to rock with the rhythm, why do some people struggle to stay sonically aligned? Most of us have met someone (or are that someone) who seems to dance to the beat of their own drum when it comes to keeping pace. A study from McGill University examined the phenomenon — known as "beat deafness" — to better understand potential causes. The study looked at 32 people and their ability to keep the beat with a metronome by tapping their fingers. For most people, even a 5% change in metronome speed was noticeable, causing them to speed up or slow down their tapping to match. While the process wasn't instantaneous — participants would overshoot or undershoot before settling in close to the beat — it was generally reliable. Except for those with beat deafness. While these participants were able to detect a shift in tempo, they were unable to match it. If they sped up or slowed down, they stayed there and weren't able to settle in on the correct rhythm. The cause? Analysis suggested a biological root cause driven by internal oscillators. For most people, these oscillators make it possible to automatically match up with beats in a song with physical processes, such as tapping their fingers, clapping or walking. For individuals with beat deafness, meanwhile, these oscillators aren't working as intended. The McGill study found that in one case, the individual's auditor oscillator ran at a unique frequency compared to others in the control group, making it challenging to find the beat. In another, the oscillator lacked what researchers called a "dampen" function, making it impossible to settle in and find the beat of the music. Worth noting? The McGill work found that true beat deafness is extremely rare. In the study, just two people were identified as having true beat deafness. While some of the control group weren't music masters, they were able to stay largely on tempo, even if it took some time. Feel the Beat Bottom line? While musical training and hard work can help humans better match auditory rhythms, the underlying process of staying on beat is largely biological. This starts with auditory memory: Raw information is converted into meaningful sound by our short-term memory over a span of 2 to 4 seconds. If repeated sound exposures suggest a beat, internal oscillators help us "settle in" and find a tempo that matches. If these oscillators are out of alignment, however, the result can be a recognition of rhythm without the ability to keep pace. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Auditory Memory: And the Beat Goes On

Microbes (also called microorganisms) are not only all around us — they are also inside us. Vast colonies of microorganisms inhabit our digestive system and other tissues, where their activity is vital to our life and health. Though invisible to the naked eye, and never even imagined until the microscope revealed them, microorganisms are not only ubiquitous but often easily cultivated. As ScienceAlert explains, wipe down practically any surface, dab the wipe in a Petri dish, keep the Petri dish warm and cozy for a few days, and you will cultivate colonies of microorganisms to show off to your friends with a handy microscope. The ease of finding and cultivating microorganisms is good news for microbiologists: They have no shortage of microbes to study. They've also been able to apply tools such as genomics to examine the genetic material of microorganisms, sequencing their DNA in the same way as geneticists who study the human genome or those of other plants and animals. Examining in the Wild There is a hitch: Not all microorganisms thrive equally well in the artificial environment of a Petri dish. Thus, the gathering process outlined above, even in sophisticated versions, does not give us a cross section of microbes but only those that thrive in a lab. As a result, according to the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), traditional methods of microorganism cultivation and study tend to give us "laboratory knowledge" of these microscopic creatures. Even in our microscopes, we see them only in highly artificial conditions, not living and acting within their natural ecosystem. This is a serious limitation, rather like trying to understand the behavior and ecology of tigers, if the only tigers you could study were in a zoo. When Genomics Goes Meta To get around this limitation, microbiologists have devised an approach called metagenomics, which examines the gene sequences not of individual specimens but of entire ecological communities. And, per ScienceAlert, this technique has begun to yield spectacular results — most recently the discovery of 12,000 species of microbes that had never been observed in a lab. Such a large-scale discovery was possible because more than ten thousand metagenomes, or group samples, were collected from all parts of the world, across land and sea, providing researchers with an unmatched range and variety of ecosystems. According to the National Human Genome Research Institute, the term "metagenomics" combines "genomics," a.k.a. the study of gene sequencing and effects, with "meta", which denotes multiplicity. (In various contexts it can also mean "more," "beyond," or "transcending.") Separately, the NCBI notes that metagenomics is "both a set of research techniques, comprising many related approaches and methods, and a research field" — the branch of microbiology that uses those techniques to microbe ecosystems rather than only at individual microorganisms. Putting a Jigsaw Puzzle Through a Blender All of this has its own challenges. As Jacinta Bowler of ScienceAlert rather vividly puts it, the process "sounds like trying to reassemble a jigsaw puzzle that's been put through the blender." But this is not the first time that scientists have confronted similar problems. From dinosaurs to our own hominid ancestors, animal species have been reconstructed from scattered bone fragments. Similar achievements abound across scientific disciplines. What scientists in all field do when confronted with a mass of scattered bits of evidence is look for patterns and use them to group the finds. In metagenomics, this pattern-matching process is known as "binning." Metagenomics is in the process of transforming microbiology, which through the 20th century worked primarily with cultured microorganisms. Only gradually did microbiologists fully grasp the degree to which the natural environment is dominated by microbes never found in the lab. A review from the American Society for Microbiology describes this transformation as a "culture divide" between studying "wild" versus culture-grown microbes. But in the big picture this "culture divide" reflects not just the development of new technologies but also a growing understanding that living organisms and systems can only be understood in an ecological context shaped by their interactions with one another. 

A World of Microbes Revealed by Metagenomics

The Black Death, a pandemic that swept Europe and Asia in 1346 to 1353, killed much of the population, according to History Today. Outbreaks continued to occur every few generations in Europe, the Middle East, Northern Africa and Asia for the next 500 years.
Despite its huge impact on human history, exactly what caused the Black Death — the original source of the infectious Yersinia pestis bacteria — has been unclear. A recent study published in Nature used ancient DNA to pinpoint the source of the Black Death, offering insights that could help mitigate current and future pandemics, including COVID-19.
A Look Back at the Plague
The plague can be transmitted through airborne particles and the bite of infected fleas, which feed on rats that have long been blamed as the source of the Black Death. The plague bacteria first attack the lymphatic system, causing painful swelling of the lymph nodes in the groin, armpits or neck. This stage is called bubonic plague because of the swollen buboes that ooze pus and bleed.
The infection goes on to cause fever, chills, vomiting, diarrhea and agonizing pain. Without antibiotic treatment, about 60% of patients die, as explained by Frontiers in Microbiology. The bacteria can spread to the lungs and become highly infectious pneumonic plague, which has a mortality rate of 90–95%. It can also spread to the blood and become septicemic plague, which is nearly 100% lethal.
The History of the Black Death
The known history of the Black Death in Europe starts in Crimea, which is a peninsula on the Black Sea. Ships could sail from the Black Sea through Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) and into the Mediterranean Sea to access much of Europe, Northern Africa and the Middle East.
In October 1347, some trade ships from Crimea docked in Sicily. Many of the sailors on board were already dead, and the others were covered in the swollen buboes of bubonic plague, according to HISTORY. The ships were turned away, but the damage was done. The Black Death had entered Europe and would spread by land and by ship, carried by rats and their fleas.
Before the plague arrived in Sicily in 1347, there were stories of a "Great Pestilence" that was ravaging China, India, Persia, Syria and Egypt. The historical records here are less clear, so the origins of the Black Death remained a mystery for 675 years.
Tracing the Source
As reported in Nature, an international team of historians, archaeologists and geneticists headed to Central Asia. This is where Pakistan, Afghanistan and other countries reside north of India, west of China and south of Russia. In present-day Kyrgyzstan, there are two cemeteries that had an unusually large number of burials in 1338 and 1339 and tombstones indicating that the cause of death was "pestilence."
Could this area have been the source of the Black Death that decimated Europe from 1346 to 1353? By sequencing ancient DNA from these grave sites, the research team was able to confirm the presence of plague. Furthermore, they were able to obtain the complete DNA sequence of the plague bacteria responsible for those deaths and compare it to other DNA sequences for Y. pestis.
The previously identified DNA sequences fall into four major groups, which are the result of a "Big Bang" mutation event associated with the start of the Black Death. The ancient DNA sequence fit perfectly at the base of the plague family tree. These results provide good evidence that the source of the Black Death was in Central Asia.
Plague Reservoirs Are Keeping the Bacteria Alive
Plague is not primarily a disease of humans and would die out if there were only human hosts. However, plague bacteria survive within wild rodent populations around the world in so-called plague reservoirs. Therefore, the "pestilence" noted on ancient tombstones in present-day Kyrgyzstan must have come from a plague reservoir if it was truly what caused the Black Death. Indeed, researchers found that the ancient plague DNA sequence closely matches the sequence of Y. pestis found recently in nearby wild rodent populations.
The presence of animal reservoirs makes it nearly impossible to completely irradiate plague. According to the World Health Organization, there are still cases of plague every year, mostly in Africa during the epidemic season. Luckily, antibiotics now provide an effective treatment.
The Death Tolls of 3 Major Pandemics
In Europe from 1347 to 1352, the Black Death killed an estimated 25–30 million people out of a population of 80 million, according to World History. That's around 30–40% of the European population. It's estimated that the Black Death was responsible for an additional 25 million deaths in Asia and North Africa, as explained in National Geographic.
For comparison, the 1918 flu pandemic claimed an estimated 17.4 million lives (.95% of the worldwide population at the time), according to the most recent (2018) estimates by Spreeuwenberg et al. as reported by Our World in Data.
As of February 2023, COVID-19 has caused more than 6.5 million deaths in a global population of 8 billion people (0.23% of the global population), according to the World Health Organization. This number is based on 7.5 million deaths officially attributed to COVID-19 and an estimate of unreported deaths.
Lessons for COVID-19 and Future Pandemics
Just as plague reservoirs allow plague to return to healthy populations, viral reservoirs are of grave concern for COVID-19. The virus that causes COVID-19 can infect a variety of animals, including bats, white-tailed deer, farmed mink and domestic cats and dogs.
As explained in Nature, viral reservoirs could be the source of new variants of COVID-19, such as the highly infectious Omicron variant. The Omicron variant has an astonishing 50 mutations compared to the original virus that emerged from Wuhan, China. What is truly remarkable is that these 50 mutations were not detected gradually — despite sequencing millions of COVID-19 samples — but showed up in the tested population all at once. A leading theory is that Omicron evolved in an animal reservoir, such as rats, and was then transmitted to humans.
Experts agree that the next pandemic is inevitable and that the only question is when. As such, it would be wise to gain a better understanding of the source of infectious diseases today so we can better protect against them tomorrow.
 
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Ancient DNA Reveals What Caused the Black Death

Today, more than 6 million people in the U.S. are living with Alzheimer's disease, the most common type of dementia. Unlike many diseases that can be spotted early enough to start meaningful treatment, a diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease typically comes years after it has advanced.
However, hope is building that recent gains in research could someday help detect Alzheimer's disease early. Recent studies using blood and urine tests, imaging of the brain and even an infrared sensor all highlight the many efforts aimed at making an incurable disease curable. If successful, these diagnostic tools could let people potentially benefit from effective treatments before the disease has progressed too far.
Let's take a look at how Alzheimer's disease works and the promising research and testing being developed today that will give us hope for tomorrow.
Alzheimer's Disease Doesn't Immediately Show
Mild memory loss is usually the first noticeable symptom of Alzheimer's disease. As the condition worsens, people often lose the ability to communicate and properly function. Scientists don't know exactly what causes the disease, but as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes, age and genetics play a role, while education, environment, diet and other diseases might also be involved.
For years, the disease has been diagnosed through mental status and neurophysiological tests, as well as laboratory analyses and brain imaging, as the Mayo Clinic explains. But because it often takes months or even years of memory issues and other behavior to form a discernible pattern for family members or friends to notice, a clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease usually comes once the condition has progressed.
Yet, scientists no longer view Alzheimer's disease as an end-of-life condition and are focusing on how its triggers influence the brain, causes that the National Institute on Aging explains in detail. The researchers' focus includes determining how the natural amyloid-beta protein creates plaques that disrupt cell function, seeing how the tau protein collects inside neurons and studying the role of chronic inflammation, vascular problems and diminishing neuronal connections.
Discovering New Ways to Detect Alzheimer's Disease
These areas of research are behind several possible new ways to detect Alzheimer's disease early. Here are a few promising methods that are currently in development:
A Blood Test for Alzheimer's Disease
University of Washington researchers devised a laboratory test that can detect the levels of amyloid-beta protein in people early on. Their test spotted the protein not only in the blood of people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's but also in those who later developed MCI, according to Medical News Today.
Finding a Key Molecule in Urine
Another research team claimed to be the first to recognize a molecule in urine that can reveal early-stage Alzheimer's disease. Their test analyzed formic acid, a urinary biomarker. The researchers believe this easy test could lead to a widespread clinical push to frequently screen people's urine to find Alzheimer's disease early, as WalesOnline reported.
PET Scans as a Preventative Tool
Scientists at Lund University in Sweden studied the brains of 1,325 people who didn't have signs of cognitive impairment using the imaging test known as positron emission tomography (PET). They discovered the amyloid-beta and tau proteins in some people and found they were significantly more at risk of developing Alzheimer's disease compared to test participants who experienced very little to no cognitive decline years later, according to Medical News Today.
One of the lead researchers believes their findings demonstrate that an Alzheimer's disease diagnosis can be based on biology and what is seen in the brain. "If we can diagnose before cognitive challenges appear, we may eventually be able to use [a] drug to slow down the disease at a very early stage."
Detecting a Protein Event Early
In 2022, researchers at Ruhr-University Bochum in Germany created an advanced blood test for Alzheimer's disease that identified misfolded amyloid-beta biomarkers in plasma. The test isn't an ordinary blood draw — instead, they used an immuno-infrared sensor.
As ScienceDaily reports, their discovery means they might be able to see signs of Alzheimer's disease in blood up to 17 years before clinical symptoms appear.
Hope for a Brighter Future
These and many other studies are chasing a goal that had long seemed too distant to reach: early and effective diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease that can align with the many treatment therapies being developed today. While still not near enough, that distance finally doesn't seem as far.
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Taking Steps Toward Improving the Diagnosis of Alzheimer&#8217;s Disease

Dreams are often fleeting memories that play across our minds just as we're emerging from sleep. Unless we awake with a jolt from a vicious nightmare, pulse racing and body trembling at impending danger, we're unlikely to remember much of what we've dreamed about. There's often a feeling that we've had a dream, but for most of us, we're most likely to wake up asking, "Why can't I remember my dreams?"
Although a lot is known about brain activity during REM sleep, science isn't completely certain how or why we dream. Let's explore what we do know.
Dreaming While You Sleep
Dreams have a checkered history. There are no magic answers to help us with dream recall, but humans have always sought to give meaning to these mysterious phenomena. At various points in history, they've been explained as prophecy, messages from the gods and symbolic behavioral events in modern psychology. Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud, for example, both assumed there was a lot of hidden meaning relevant to daily life in our dreams that could explain certain psychological issues.
Scientific research still hasn't pinpointed the reason for dreaming; oneirology, the science of dreams, suggests that it may help with problem-solving, while lucid dreaming is often associated with creativity. According to Beatles folklore, Paul McCartney came up with the music for "Yesterday" and "Let It Be" while dreaming.
Whatever purpose dreaming fulfills, it's present in both rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. According to a study by the Institute of Medicine's Committee on Sleep Medicine and Research, dreams during early REM-phase sleep tend to be erratic and worrying, whereas in later-stage REM sleep, dreaming is usually more pleasant and comforting. NREM dreams can be more abstract. And though we don't know why we dream, going without them can spell trouble — researchers have found that losing REM sleep can cause memory issues and limit the ability to recall.
In short, brain activity during REM sleep could have a more vital function than simply keeping us entertained while unconscious.
Does Brain Activity During REM Sleep Explain Dreams?
There are two phases during sleep: REM and NREM, which cycle alternately through the night. NREM sleep takes up about 75% to 80% of sleep time. At first, the NREM-REM sleep cycle lasts between 70 and 100 minutes. As sleep progresses, the cycles take longer, and we spend longer in REM sleep, too.
There's distinct brain activity during each of the stages. For example, during REM sleep, your muscles and reflexes relax. According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, we spend around two hours of our sleep in a dream state. The relaxation of your muscles and reflexes during REM means we can dream without acting them out — we're effectively immobilized as our dreams play out.
Our bodies may be in quiet mode, but what's happening in the brain as we dream? According to BBC's Science Focus, there's activity going on in our brains even though we're asleep and dreaming. Brain activity during REM sleep includes the activation of regions associated with fears and emotions. Electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings have shown great activity in the limbic system (emotions) and amygdala (fear).
The cerebral cortex and the visual cortex, especially, have also shown heightened activity — this is thought to be associated with the content of the dream itself. It makes sense, as our dreams are often fantastical visual arrays that make little sense. Reduced activity in the frontal lobes could point to the suspension of critical thought processes, so we just accept the craziness going on behind our twitching eyelids.
Change in brain activity witnessed from the outside, through EEG, may give researchers an eye into what a dream is about. As reported by The Guardian, researchers found activation of brain areas associated with dreaming about faces, for example, is marked by activity in the facial recognition zone. This supports the idea that dreaming is something that takes place while we're asleep rather than something that just happens when we wake up.
But Why Can't I Remember My Dreams?
Unless they wake up during a dream, most people have no memory of what was happening. Even if they seem really vivid, their memory soon fades and becomes fragmentary. Medical News Today suggests that fluctuating neurotransmitter levels could be the reason — varying levels of acetylcholine and norepinephrine may interfere with dream recall. There are also differences in brain anatomy in people who remembered their dreams more easily.
BBC Future has some tips if you want to remember those exciting adventures your mind took you on while asleep, and it's all about how you wake up. They suggest a gentle start to the day will help you recall those fragile and jumbled visions. Rather than leaping out of bed at the first alarm, spend some time in stillness without opening your eyes as you wake, slowly gathering up the strands of the dream into a memory.
If this doesn't help, don't feel too bad. Almost everyone struggles with remembering their dreams, and it seems more research may need to be done to discover why — and how to potentially boost dream recall.
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Why Can't I Remember My Dreams?

In what can be described as a lightning-strikes-twice scenario, both "The Last of Us" video game and the TV show it inspired are both hits. Unsurprisingly, the events detailed in the show and the game have given rise to some questions: Could a zombie fungus pandemic be in our future?
 
Here's a look at how the cordyceps fungus works, how it stacks up against other infection vectors, such as bacteria and viruses, and if "The Last of Us" might come for us next.
 
Don't Bug Me, Man
 
Let's get this out of the way first: There is absolutely a type of zombie fungus — ophiocordyceps, often just called cordyceps — that can infect insects, such as carpenter ants, caterpillars, spiders and dragonflies.
 
Once inside the insect, cordyceps creates and releases chemical compounds that force the insect to change its behavior. The purpose of which is to spread more fungus. Cordyceps accomplishes this goal by compelling infected insects to climb or fly to high places and then bite down on a branch or leaf. Next, their jaws lock, and they remain in place until the fungal growth cycle is complete, which is when spore stalks burst out of the insects' heads and bodies.
 
Gruesome? Undeniably. Effective? Absolutely.
 
Since the fungus forces the insects to climb, the spores released can travel farther, in turn infecting more insects to start the cycle anew.
 
He's Not a Fungi
 
With recent pandemic experiences fresh in our minds, there's a worry that these fungi could make an evolutionary leap and start taking the fight to humans. But how do they stack up against bacteria and viruses when it comes to infecting larger mammals?
 
As a recent CNET piece points out, not great: Where bacteria and viruses have adapted to infect human systems and fight back against immune responses, fungal attacks aren't well-suited to our warm-blooded bodies. It makes sense, as most instances of cordyceps infections are seen in hot, wet climates where the fungus can flourish outside of hosts. Inside infected insects, meanwhile, simple organ structures and the inability to regulate their own body temperature make them the ideal hosts for fungal homes.
 
This isn't to say we're immune to diseases caused by fungi or illnesses that can change our behavior. For example, Candida auris is a yeast that causes thrush and is a concern in places like hospitals, where most humans have compromised immune systems. What's more, this fungus is drug-resistant, making it harder to treat once it manages to infect someone. There are also more common and less serious fungal concerns, such as the strains that cause athletes' foot and ringworm. What they have in common is that, once they take root, they're difficult to remove.
 
There's also precedent for infections changing human behavior. For example, if left untreated, the rabies virus can cause those infected to become aggressive, delirious and afraid of water. While there's no impetus to climb large trees and spread viral particles, rabies nonetheless alters behavior via infection.
 
Global Warming, Fungal Warning
 
When fungi make their way to the U.S. in "The Last of Us," it takes only a few days for society to collapse. In large part, the quick decline is tied to fungal spores in common foodstuffs — with massive numbers of people infected and the incubation period taking only a few days, society finds itself thrown into sudden chaos as fungal freeloaders take over.
 
Global warming is linked to the ability of cordyceps to thrive and survive in new climates. In the HBO show, worries around global warming are discussed — but ignored — years before the infection. As noted by CNN, however, while increasing temperatures could make fungal infections more common, it's unlikely they would trigger a pandemic. Those with weakened immune systems might be at greater risk, and effectively targeting diseases caused by fungi is more challenging given that they share the same basic cell structure as humans, but even a warmer world shouldn't trigger a global disaster.
 
"The Last of Us" Disease: Our Fungal Future, or Frightening Fiction?
 
In "The Last of Us," one of the worst parts of the infection is that the infected know exactly what they're doing — they just can't stop themselves. Some scenes show first-stage infected, known as "runners," crying or screaming as they bite other humans. This mimics the effect of cordyceps in nature; insects are aware of what's happening (as much as any insect can be), but they're powerless to stop it. Given the depth of emotion made possible by human brains, this loss of control would be terrifying.
 
But is this our fungal future?
 
Probably not. As noted, humans aren't great hosts for fungi. While some strains do infect us, others are used to combat infection and improve our overall health. And while global warming does pose a potential problem if cordyceps and other strains manage to survive in different climates, we'll likely have bigger issues to worry about at that point.
 
In addition, Scientific American notes that there are strains of cordyceps that are beneficial to humans. Sometimes called "Himalayan Gold," cordyceps sinensis has been used for centuries to treat headaches, coughs, liver disease and kidney disease. This type of fungus infects and kills caterpillars — instead of forcing them to climb, however, it forces them to stay underground with just their head above the soil. It then kills the insect and grows out of its corpse.
 
So, yes, you read that correctly — humans are already ingesting a form of cordyceps for its beneficial medical properties, and while the jury's out on how effectively this fungus fights specific illnesses, it hasn't caused a parasitic pandemic just yet.
 
The disease from "The Last of Us" is based on a terrifying, absolutely real concept that makes for great television and video games. Chances are, however, that it's one of the last things humans should be worried about — we've got enough on our plates already.
 
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Zombie Fungus: Could &#8220;The Last of Us&#8221; Be Humanity&#8217;s Future?

Key Takeaways  Viruses need hosts for long-term survival. During space flight, humans can transmit viruses to fellow travellers. Immunosupression during prolonged space flight can reactivate dormant viral infection.Viruses are everywhere. Some don't infect humans, while some — such as the common cold — cause minor, irritating symptoms.Others are both contagious and potentially critical. Today, we're facing challenges with respiratory illnesses that spread rapidly and don't easily relent.What if we could get away from it all — far, far away — and slip the surly bonds of Earth to avoid the impact of on-planet pathogens? It's an interesting idea, but what's the prognosis: Can viruses survive in space?Inside/OutThere are actually two questions here: Can viruses survive inside the pressurized, low-gravity environment of the shuttles or stations — and can they survive in the cold and unforgiving darkness outside?The first answer is easy: Absolutely. Astronauts already infected when they blast off into space spread viruses to their fellow fliers, and viruses can easily jump from host to host in the earthlike environment of space shuttles or the International Space Station (ISS).When it comes to viruses outside these constructed confines, the answer gets more complicated. As noted by BBC Science Focus, viruses can't survive for long without viable host; most can live for hours in the air and days on indoor surfaces at room temperatures. And that's under ideal conditions. Even the toughest, nastiest pathogen would find it problematic to stay alive in the freezing dark of space.Viruses inside objects — such as asteroids — may fare better. While they still need hosts to survive long-term, research published in Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews (available through NCBI) indicates that even when these space rocks rip through atmospheres and their outer crusts reach temperatures topping 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit, microorganisms located deeper inside these objects could survive.Leaving Earth? Welcome to LockdownIllness in space is undeniably awful. Imagine feeling sick enough to vomit, and then realizing that lacking appreciable gravity, your sudden upchuck will cause the contents of your stomach to go everywhere — up, down, left, right and anywhere else it can reach. Yikes.What's more, there's no easy access to medical technology onboard orbiting vessels. While it's possible to virtually connect with earthbound doctors for medical advice, any serious infectious issues would spread at speed through a closed environment.As noted by Space, several astronauts on the Apollo 7, 8 and 9 missions were sick with colds. The virus quickly spread among the crew, depleted available medical supplies, and caused crew members to forgo wearing protective helmets when re-entering the atmosphere. It makes sense; the pressure pain caused by colds when landing in a plane is bad enough — imagine the change when dropping 62 miles to the Earth's surface at 17,500 miles per hour.To reduce the risk of illness in space, NASA has implemented a mandatory pre-flight quarantine that includes limited, monitored contact with other people. It's not perfect, but it's better than the alternative.Reactivation RisksViruses also pose a unique risk for space travelers: reactivation. As noted by NASA research published in Frontiers in Microbiology, both astronauts on shuttle missions and those on the ISS demonstrated latent herpes virus reactivation. While most of the shed viral DNA was asymptomatic, live and infectious virus shedding was also detected. According to Dr. Satish K. Mehta, one author of the study, spaceflight causes "a rise in the secretion of stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, which are known to change the immune system." As a result, immune cells become less effective during off-Earth missions, and this immunosuppression can persist for up to 60 days after astronauts return home.This makes the idea of escaping Earth to avoid problematic pathogens less-than-ideal: Even if you're not showing symptoms, existing viruses you've already endured could make a reappearance as your immune system struggles to adapt.Just Say NaNOThankfully, it's not all bad news. Recent advances in nanotechnology show promise to help mitigate the impact and control the spread of viruses. Work from the Potsdamn Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, and the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science shows that with the right approach, flexible nanotech compounds can help reduce the efficacy of infection by up to 90%.Further development of this technology could help boost disease defenses by bridging the gap between regular immune functioning and the stressed-out systems of astronauts rocketing their way into outer space.Spaced OutCan viruses survive in space? The prognosis: Yes and no.Outside the confines of the ISS or shuttle, even the most resilient respiratory illnesses will have a tough time, but inside pressurized metal transports there's a different story. Astronauts can easily bring colds or flu from home — and infect fellow crew mates — while seemingly long-dead diseases can reemerge as immune systems struggle with the stress of space-based living.Bottom line? Space is no virus vacation. While you're probably protected from alien pathogens, what you're already packing could make an outer space adventure very, very uncomfortable.Our pioneering spirit is backed by a legacy of expertise that began at the dawn of the space age. Learn more about Northrop Grumman programs for human space flight and logistics.

Can Viruses Survive in Space? The Pathogen Particle Prognosis

It starts with subtle changes: food cravings, neck stiffness, frequent urination, feelings of fogginess and even euphoria. Then, you might experience nausea, sensitivity to light and sound, and numbness in parts of your body. Next comes a severe throbbing headache that can last a few hours or days. Finally, the headache subsides, and you have a migraine hangover. Migraine causes are still not fully understood, but scientists are making progress and developing new treatments. According to Discover Magazine, migraines are so debilitating that they are the number one cause of disability in people ages 15 to 49. Current research suggests genetics and environmental factors contribute to this neurological disease. And as researchers continue to learn more about causes, they are exploring new migraine treatments that could provide much-needed relief for an estimated 1 billion people worldwide who experience migraines. A Wide Range of Experiences People who don't suffer from migraines might mistakenly confuse them with severe headaches. However, migraines involve various symptoms and a timeline that can last several days or longer. Generally, migraines include four phases (although everyone does not always experience each phase). Mayo Clinic describes the four stages of a migraine:   Prodrome: In the days leading up to a migraine, people can experience warning signs such as constipation, fluid retention, mood changes, neck stiffness and frequent yawning.  Aura: Some people experience a gradual escalation of sensory and motor symptoms such as vision issues, pins and needles sensations and even difficulty speaking.  Attack: The main event typically involves a pulsing headache and heightened sensitivity to light and sound, often accompanied by nausea and vomiting.  Postdrome: The days after a migraine attack are similar to a hangover, in which people experience a foggy, drained feeling.  Migraine Causes Children and adults can get migraines, although they often start during adolescence and gradually become less frequent and less severe throughout adulthood. Risk factors include genetics, age, sex and hormone changes. A young boy, for example, is less likely to experience migraines than a 30-year-old woman who has a family history of migraine. The American Migraine Foundation reports that migraines affect 1 in 5 women, 1 in 16 men, and 1 in 11 children. But what causes migraines? Scientists used to think the dilation of blood vessels caused migraines. But during the last few decades, researchers have discovered that migraines are more related to the trigeminal nerve, which is part of the nervous system and transmits a variety of sensations from the head, including pain. Discover Magazine explains that in the last 20 years, researchers discovered that the pain comes from neuroinflammation of structures in the brain that sense pain. There are many areas of the brain and several types of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, which help to regulate pain in your nervous system. Another neurotransmitter called calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) appears to be a vital part of the migraine puzzle. People with migraines have more CGRP than average. Plus, scientists conducted experiments that revealed elevated levels of CGRP during migraine attacks. Migraine Treatments There is no cure for migraines, but as researchers continue to pinpoint migraine causes, they lead the way for new treatment options. There is now a range of strategies for preventing and treating migraines. Here are a few of the most common treatments:   Learning triggers and making lifestyle changes to avoid them when possible can help. Some migraines appear to be random, but others are related to triggers such as changes in sleep, food or stimuli. Some people keep a consistent routine to avoid triggering migraines. Plus, people use relaxation techniques and head to a dark room to rest when symptoms begin.  Pain relievers and migraine relief medications can help to reduce symptoms of mild migraines and make people more comfortable during an attack.  Medications that were developed for other uses, such as beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, antidepressants and anticonvulsants can help to prevent migraines.  Triptans, also called serotonin receptor agonists, are a type of medication that can relieve symptoms by blocking pain pathways in the brain and shrinking swollen blood vessels that develop from migraine attacks, according to Healthline.  External neural stimulators, Botox (onabotulinumtoxinA) or hand-held machines that zap various nerves may also help.  Today, there are several new options, such as drugs that tighten the blood vessels in the brain, monoclonal antibodies (laboratory-produced molecules) that specifically target CGRP and drugs that target other receptors. More than 10,000 scientific articles about migraines have been published in the last five years (see: PubMed). This is an active research area that will continue to open pathways for innovative treatments in the future. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Evolving Understanding of Migraine Causes and Treatments

"I didn't think a human could experience that much pain," Greenport, New York, resident Bob Jester says in a video from the website Immersive Health. In August 2016, Jester fell from a rooftop and broke 19 bones, mainly in his back and legs. After multiple surgeries, he found himself with several rods and 16 bolts in his back and was facing excruciating pain that kept him awake at night. That's when he started using virtual reality therapy as part of how to treat chronic pain.  Each day, when he felt as though he needed to pop another pain pill, Jester would put on virtual reality (VR) goggles and become immersed in a world that distracted him from his pain. It would take his attention away from the pain, he says, and soon he learned to train his brain to do that same thing for an hour or two after he used the technology. A year later, Jester had stopped using opioid pain medication and, although some doctors have told him that he will never walk again, he can now move his left leg. Chronic pain affects 50 million people in the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control. But virtual reality therapy is beginning to show results, reports a 2018 research review in the medical journal Current Pain and Headache Reports. The immersive experience distracts patients from pain enough to help them cope. For instance, a 2016 study published in PLOS One found that almost all of the 30 burn patients who used a five-minute VR application called "Cool!" reported a decrease in pain from the beginning of the session to the end. Ten said they felt no pain at all during the session. Findings like these are making virtual reality therapy a viable treatment for chronic pain. How to Treat Chronic Pain These medical approaches and other distraction-related VR therapies are based on the "gate control" theory of pain, which was first introduced in 1965, according to Pain-Health. The theory says that as pain messages travel through the nervous system, they encounter "gates" in the spinal cord. Some pain messages get through and reach the brain, while others do not. Distraction therapy gives the brain a chance to send a signal down the spinal cord and close the pain gates before the signal arrives at the brain. Several healthcare companies are merging medical theory and technology to develop chronic pain treatments that use VR. Los-Angeles-based AppliedVR is one of these providers. Since 2015, the company has developed solutions for more than 250 hospitals and 20,000 patients in eight countries globally. A variety of VR modules cover a different topic such as relaxation, breathing techniques, mindfulness meditation and positive thinking. Patients can not only learn to cope with chronic pain, anxiety or stress but also practice prepping for childbirth or an MRI scan. The Silicon Valley-based firm CognifiSense wants to pair VR with psychological therapies to address so-called maladaptive neuroplastic changes in the brain. These are changes that occur in the brain when the nervous system responds to an injury by establishing new nerve connections or altering the strength of existing ones. Sometimes these changes drive chronic pain; in theory, retraining them could reduce that pain. Virtual reality therapy is a relatively new kind of chronic pain treatment plan. But early results show that it may be effective. In a world where the overuse of opioid medications has led to addiction, overdose and death, finding new alternatives to dealing with pain is a priority. Relatively inexpensive and with no serious side effects, VR could offer an effective alternative.

How Virtual Reality Can Treat Chronic Pain

If a person is going green by setting out to make the world a cleaner, greener place through everyday tasks, the first items to come to mind might be activities like recycling, planting trees, buying used items or driving a hybrid car.  How about not driving at all — at least, when possible? For Pete Moss, a Northrop Grumman accounting coordinator, that method has paid big dividends in time and money saved while reducing his impact on the environment.  Moss describes how an innovative management program helped him start a going green solution that could work for many others.  "During a department meeting two years ago, we developed a system of work-at-home awards based on cash forecasting accuracy, and through that I started telecommuting once a week, avoiding the 80-minute round-trip commute. This award system has been greatly received but I wanted to see if it could be expanded. In today's highly mobile society, one of the most sought-after benefits that today's job applicants look for is a workplace that's more adaptable to the needs of our ever-busy lifestyles. While I know the ability to work from home is not possible for everyone, I want to use my case as an example of how doing it once a week can achieve positive financial, environmental, retention and engagement benefits."  Here's how the good news stacked up for Moss and the environment during the course of a year by telecommuting once a week:  Â· 4,587 miles not driven  Â· $437.85 saved through 208.5 fewer gallons of gas purchased at $2.10/gallon  Â· 83 hours commuting time saved  Â· About $100 for routine maintenance saved  Â· About two tons less carbon dioxide dumped into the atmosphere, as well as less carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides and particulates that come from burning gas If 10,000 employees with similar commutes telecommuted once a week, it would translate to about 40 million pounds less CO2 in the atmosphere per year — not to mention some easing of the gridlock on our freeways. And then there are the intangible benefits, such as less stress in dealing with that gridlock. It truly affects quality of life.  Many people struggle to strike the right work/life balance. Finding an adaptable employer that offers some flexibility in working arrangements is a top-criteria item to many job seekers. So if a company is seen as that kind of employer, all the better. According to ApplicantPro.com, Dell, a computer industry leader, is aiming to have 50 percent of its global workforce on flexible schedules by 2020. And if more employees start telecommuting, at least occasionally, the benefits can extend beyond these factors to the bottom line. Companies across the nation could save thousands in building rental space alone, plus all the overhead that goes with them. Encouraging more and more employees to work flexible schedules has saved Dell $21 million since 2013 in real estate costs alone.  Lower expenses mean companies can lower their rates, beat the competition and gain market share. Now you've got the attention of the accountants and the C-suite. Not too bad for creating a commute that goes just down the hall.

Going Green From Home

There's a lot of discussion about immunity and protecting ourselves from infectious diseases these days, and with good reason — the modern marvel of vaccination has the ability to protect not just the vaccinated but also those who cannot receive an immunizing jab. Learning about disease transmission through a population can help you understand not only what herd immunity is but also how herd immunity works to provide considerable benefits to a population that has achieved this state. It's All In The Herd Yes, it is quite literally all in the herd, though as Yale Medicine points out, community immunity might be a better term to use when explaining what herd immunity is. According to The Lancet, the phrase "herd immunity" was first used by American livestock veterinarians who were seeing epidemics of spontaneous miscarriage among cattle and sheep in the early 1900s. This disease, which was called "contagious abortion," was the leading health threat to herds at the time and caused loss of productivity and economic hardship for farmers throughout the United States, who had to destroy their animals to prevent the disease from spreading. However, through observation, livestock veterinarians started to notice that instead of culling the herd, it was much better to build protection by naturally acquired infection. Animals that went through a miscarriage storm were ultimately protected. This led Adolph Eichhorn, writing for the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association in 1918, to liken the disease to a fire, noting that restricting new fuel would stem the spread. Accordingly, it was found that herd immunity could be achieved by avoiding addition of new cattle, as those that had already experienced the disease were immune. What Is Herd Immunity? Herd immunity is reached when a population enjoys some degree of protection from contagious disease due to a significant portion of the population developing immunity. As The Mayo Clinic describes, when this point is reached, spread declines throughout the population, conferring community protection on those who cannot gain immunity themselves. Individuals can gain immunity from contagious disease either by catching and recovering from an infection, or through effective vaccination. Either method can give antibody protection from future infection, thereby reducing the number of individuals who would be susceptible to the disease. Disease spread then slows, which means the infection is less prevalent in the community and at-risk individuals are less likely to be exposed. This is extremely important to individuals who cannot receive vaccination, or for whom natural disease could be severely damaging or fatal. How Does Herd Immunity Work? For contagious disease to spread effectively through a population, a certain amount of individuals needs to be infected and carry the virus as an infected reservoir. In other words, there needs to be enough of the virus present that other individuals can catch it. This depends somewhat on the R0 value of the disease. Healthline describes this mathematical construct, pronounced "R naught," as a measure of the infectivity of a disease. For example, an R18 means that in a population that is completely open to infection and has no inbuilt immunity, one infected individual could pass the disease to 18 others. With infection, the disease vector multiplies and increases its spread, which may continue if immunity does not develop. Herd immunity occurs when the proportion of individuals who are immune to the disease passes the threshold level required to maintain infection within the population. For instance, establishing herd immunity to measles, which has an extremely high R0 value, requires around 95% population immunity, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Another example is Polio, which requires 80% immunity to "break the chain of transmission." What Creates Herd Immunity? Herd immunity comes either from vaccination programs or recovery from the disease itself. Global News notes that an effective vaccination program not only controlled polio in the mid-twentieth century but also caused the extinction of the virus's wild types 2 and 3 globally. Measles is also held in check by strong vaccination programs, though when rates fall, outbreaks can occur. Smallpox is another vaccine success story. USA Today notes that vaccination has eradicated the disease globally, and the WHO declared it extinct in May 1980, with an 80% threshold protection achieved after the disease had caused some 300 million deaths at the beginning of the last century. The end result of herd immunity is community protection, where people who can be vaccinated help to protect those who cannot. In the cases of smallpox and polio, a philosophy of "think global; act local" was adopted, and to good effect. We should look to these successful examples of herd immunity development as we aim to address issues of viral infection in our own time. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

What Is Herd Immunity, and How Does It work?

 The deadliest killer of American soldiers on the modern battlefield is not enemy artillery or sniper fire, or even improvised explosive devices (IEDs) such as roadside bombs. Instead, the deadliest killer is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) — the overwhelming effect that sudden, shocking events combined with endless uncertainty can have on the human mind. In recent and ongoing wars, more U.S. service members have lost their lives to suicide than in combat. PTSD research has thus become a major focus of investigation by the defense and health communities. Recently, here at Now we looked at the role that technologies such as virtual reality (VR) are playing in therapies that help returning veterans overcome the effects of PTSD.From Recovery to Prevention But PTSD research is also taking the challenge to its next level, seeking to harness virtual reality not only to aid recovery from PTSD, but to prevent it from arising in the first place. This research effort starts from a reality of the battlefield that is known from ancient times: Training makes a profound difference. As Matthieu Aikins of Popular Science writes about seasoned troops operating in Afghanistan, they "had done this so many times during training that they were operating from muscle memory. The surge in stress sharpened their attention, heightened their performance." Preparing soldiers for the unexpected is a familiar role of military training. But research into using VR to help soldiers deal with horrific past experiences also pointed to the possibility that it could help prepare them for such experiences beforehand.Training for Trauma Albert "Skip" Rizzo of USC has played a leading role in these efforts, through a program known as STRIVE, which stands for Stress Resilience In Virtual Environments. As Roxanne Palmer writes in International Business Times, STRIVE is a "video game" that exposes its players to experiences that are left out of typical arcade games: Thus, in the STRIVE environment, "a soldier becomes virtually immersed in missions that will force him or her to confront emotionally challenging experiences: the deaths or injuries of civilian children, the deaths of fellow soldiers and handling human remains." To maximize the immersive effect, PTSD research is drawing on technology tools such as Northrop Grumman's Virtual Immersive Portable Environment (VIPE) Holodeck. In its broader training role, as Allen McDuffie writes in Wired, VIPE provides the fully immersive environment that effective training requires. Says Brig. Gen. Michael Lundy, "for us to be able to execute realistic training — good training — we have to be able to bring that operational environment" into a virtual reality world. This remains true even when that training involves learning to cope with the worst horrors of combat.Operating in Multiple Dimensions Working with virtual-reality tools through VIPE and STRIVE represents only one dimension of the ongoing battle against PTSD and its effects on service members. The tools of the information and intelligence battlefield, such as Big Data analytics, have also been enlisted to fight PTSD. For example, as Patricia Kime reports at Military Times, researchers at Northrop Grumman teamed up with the Defense Personnel and Security Research Center and the University of Utah National Center for Veterans Studies to investigate "suicide cues" — warning flags of potential suicide efforts — that can appear in social media posts. While the immediate focus of these efforts is safeguarding service members and veterans against the effects of battlefield PTSD, they will also help first responders, such as police, firefighters and paramedics, who are at risk from sudden exposure to horrific experiences. Ultimately these tools will help us to understand and protect against traumatic effects of stress that can arise in all walks of life.

New PTSD Research Aims at Prevention

Key Takeaways  Antiretroviral therapy for AIDS stops symptoms but doesn't cure the disease. Stem cell treatments appear to have cured two men with HIV infection. The stem cell transplants gave the recipients the ability to stop cells being infected with the HIV virus.Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has been traced as far back as a century ago, but it wasn't identified until the 1980s, when it captured public attention for causing a sweeping wave of deaths.About 32 million people have died from HIV and AIDS, which is the term for the range of conditions caused by the virus. A cure for HIV has so far been elusive, but hope has flickered anew because two people who received a stem cell transplant are now clear of the disease. Hope, though, can be held with only great reservation because of beliefs in previous efforts for a cure that failed. Not to mention, stem cell transplants are risky for those who don't have cancer.Still, any bit of hope for an end to HIV means that work for a cure continues apace, giving the nearly 38 million people living with the disease something to hold onto."Berlin" and "London" Patients Are CuredAntiretroviral therapy medicine controls HIV and prevents complications, but it's not a remedy. When HIV patients are cured, the world stops to take notice. And the world did just that in 2007, when it was announced someone identified only as the "Berlin Patient" had fully healed from HIV. He was named as such because the announcement was made in the capital of Germany, and he also lived and was treated there.He initially sought anonymity, but in 2015 revealed his identity: Timothy Ray Brown, an American. "I did not want to be the only person in the world cured of HIV; I wanted other HIV patients to join my club," Brown wrote in an AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses article.A leukemia patient, Brown had a stem cell transplant from a donor with a specific genetic mutation that was resistant to HIV. It is believed the transplant populated Brown's body with cells that are unaffected by the virus. He was also cured of leukemia.Now, a second cured HIV patient has come forward. In 2019, the virologist Adam Gupta and colleagues revealed that the "London Patient" had received transplanted bone marrow to treat lymphoma and similarly had been healed of HIV, as outlined in a paper they wrote for The Lancet HIV. As seen with Brown, donated bone marrow carried a mutation that blocked HIV from entering the cells of the London Patient, essentially replacing his deficient immune system with one that could fight the virus. His lymphoma is in remission.Earlier this year, the mystery patient revealed himself: Adam Castillejo, a native of Venezuela who now lives in London. "This is a unique position to be in, a unique and very humbling position," he told the New York Times in an article that disclosed his identity. "I want to be an ambassador of hope."Stem Cell Transplant a Risky ResponseThe curing of Brown and Castillejo offers only slim hope for HIV patients. But many will take that window of opportunity, narrow as it is. "It's really important that it wasn't a one-off, it wasn't a fluke," Richard Jefferys, a director at Treatment Action Group, an advocacy organization, told the Times. "That's been an important step for the field."Gupta and his colleagues calculated that the probability of Castillejo staying in remission is 99% if at least 90% of his HIV-susceptible cells retain the bone marrow donor's CCR5-delta-32 mutation, known as chimerism, as reported by Aidsmap, a publication of NAM, a charity for HIV and AIDS. When last tested, 99% of Castillejo's peripheral T cells had maintained chimerism.Still, notwithstanding the successful cases, others in the field urge caution. For instance, in response to The Lancet HIV publication of Gupta and his colleagues' findings, experts from the Doherty Institute in Melbourne wrote that while the development "is certainly exciting and encouraging...in the end, only time will tell," according to Aidsmap.As other experts have advised, this type of stem cell transplant is a high-risk procedure and not a viable medical option for HIV patients who don't have cancer. But, as Aidsmap noted, researchers are trying to mimic the same effect of chimerism by using gene therapy to delete CCR5 receptors from a person's T cells or stem cells that create immune cells.New Developments, New HopeWhile a distant possibility despite the successful transplant cases, a cure for HIV doesn't seem as distant to those who have the virus and benefit from knowing there is even a small chance. Such experiments speak to effort, which leads to progress despite failures.Consider how at this year's Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, it was announced that a four-year-old with HIV had successful antiretroviral therapy that started two days after birth. The child has now been in remission for three years.Regenerative medicine and the use of stem cell-derived assembloids that mimic organs and body systems in the petri dish might be the way forward to finding cures for intractable diseases. Find out more.

A Stem Cell Transplant Has Cured Two HIV Patients

Since the year 2000, not all living humans have resided on Earth — the International Space Station, or ISS, has been continually occupied since then. At any given time, there are six to seven crew members aboard the ISS.   Supporting astronauts in orbit can be a real challenge, especially when it comes to space medicine. It's not like there's a hospital in orbit, and there certainly aren't doctors on every mission. What happens when an astronaut finds themselves getting sick in space? How does NASA manage the medical care of its astronauts?   How Are Astronauts Trained for Space-Based Medicine?   For the most part, NASA uses telemedicine to handle an astronaut's health and sickness. But astronauts also have to do their part. Before launch, as a routine part of training, astronauts learn about all the medical devices aboard the ISS. Because there's neither room nor bandwidth to keep a medical doctor in space at all times, crews will have a designated medical officer. That person undergoes 40 hours of paramedic-level training to ensure they're ready to deal with any emergencies that may come up.   Extended exposure to microgravity can have serious health consequences, especially once astronauts return to Earth. Alongside their mission training, astronauts undergo demanding physical training to ensure their bodies can endure the harsh conditions they'll face. In essence, they need to be built up enough to have room to deteriorate during long duration missions. Astronauts also perform rigorous fitness routines during their missions, spending around two hours a day exercising so they're healthy enough to handle anything that may come their way. By focusing on preventative care, NASA avoids many medical emergencies in space that could occur.   How Does NASA Monitor Astronauts' Health?   NASA keeps close track on astronauts' health on the ground, thanks to the flight surgeon. This specialist in aerospace medicine is assigned to each crew while they're still on the ground. They oversee their exercise regimen and medical training, and build trust with the astronauts that's crucial to managing their health when they're finally in flight.   Dealing with getting sick in space requires open, honest communication between the astronauts and flight surgeon. Each week, the astronauts have a private medical conference with the flight surgeon. This information is held in confidence unless it's something that could affect the mission. NASA also collects biometric data, results of ultrasounds and more to gain a full understanding of an astronaut's health during a mission.   Have There Ever Been Medical Emergencies in Space?   Of course, all of the preventative care in the world can't prevent every single medical emergency. Thankfully, there have been few true medical emergencies in space so far. But they have occurred on occasion.   A recent scare involved an astronaut who found a blood clot in their neck — called deep vein thrombosis. The identity of the astronaut and when, precisely, the incident occurred haven't been released to maintain medical privacy, but we do know they were two months into a six-month mission when it happened.   The clot was identified thanks to the routine ultrasounds the crew give each other to monitor health. There were no external symptoms. NASA had no procedure at the time for treating a blood clot in space.   A 2020 article in The New England Journal of Medicine dives into the issue. NASA brought in a blood clot expert to talk through options for treatment. The doctor prescribed a blood thinner, but there was a limited amount available on the ISS. They worked with the astronauts to determine how to ration the drug until more could be sent on a resupply mission. It worked — the astronaut didn't require any further treatment for the clot once they returned to Earth.   Astronaut healthcare is a huge concern, and will become even more important as missions get longer and further away from Earth. That's probably why one of the most recent astronaut candidates, Anil Menon, is a former NASA flight surgeon — having a doctor on a mission to Mars to care for the crew seems like a smart idea.   Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are, too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team. 

How Do Astronauts Handle Medical Emergencies in Space?

Not so long ago, pursuing hygiene to preserve health was a revolutionary idea. In the late 1800's, public health hero Florence Nightingale observed that under difficult circumstances, hard-working people sometimes "lose the feeling of what it is to be clean." To prevent and cure illness, she helped her patients maintain personal and environmental sanitation. Nowadays, we continue to strive to maintain hygiene for the sake of health and several other reasons — both here on Earth, and in space.  But keeping clean enough to stay healthy is often easier said than done. Hygiene in space, where water never falls from the sky or flows into the palm of your hand, is especially challenging. At the same time, it is critical to both astronaut and mission health. On the International Space Station (ISS), 2-3 hours of daily exercise is mandatory, and like Earth-based exercise, it can generate a lot of sweat. A single skin infection can stop a spacewalk, delaying repairs and costing millions, so practicing good hygiene is a must to protect the crew. However, soap bubbles made in microgravity can sail merrily away, affixing themselves to instrument panels, sensitive electronics and other random surfaces, causing their own problems. In a place where right-side-up is relative, and even the smallest health issue can jeopardize a mission, what is the right way to keep clean? And can any of the solutions scientists developed help us here on Earth? Spacebound Hand Hygiene The right hygiene in space stuff turns out to be a bit like camping, a bit like being on a submarine and a lot like throwing your used clothes and dirty dishes out the window. For the moment, let's focus on the camping part. During long treks, hygiene consists largely of hand-washing, dish-cleaning and removing visible dirt and sweat with wet rags. Hand-washing is especially important on the trail. Hikers may not have packed along their colds and flus, but they surely brought their GI tracts. And wherever your guts go, so do billions of bacteria capable of causing disease in the person who brought them — as well as fellow campers. Poor hand hygiene has been shown to be responsible for half or more of illnesses among long-distance hikers on the trail. To prevent similar outbreaks on the ISS, astronauts grab a pouch of "No-Rinse Body Bath." Basically, it's powdered soap, waiting to be reconstituted. Add a bit of hot and cold water from the taps in the walls, shake to mix, then squeeze yourself one ball of ready-to-use soap. Grab it before it can land on the power converters, rub it over your hands, and dry on a nearby towel. (You did bring your towel, right?) How Do Astronauts Shower in Space? No-Rinse Body Bath can be employed to clean the whole body, though space programs have tried other full-body hygiene solutions. In the 1970s, the Skylab space station featured a shower that accordioned open, brought in water at one end with hoses and drew it out the other with a vacuum system. For this to work, the user had to strap their feet to one end. While the idea of strapping in for a shower after a 3-hour daily workout may sound appealing, there's just one problem: Water is sticky. On Earth, water routinely sticks to our foreheads, faces and armpits. We casually wipe it away or let it drip to the floor. In microgravity, wiping water off your nose with your hand means that you now have water on your hand. It will stay there to some significant degree until you wipe it on something else. That is, assuming that you can wipe it off. Globs of water have been known to collect in front of the eyes, noses and mouths of astronauts performing spacewalks, cutting off their ability to see, speak and breathe. Thus, a shower — or in the case of Skylab, a shower curtain — full of water can quickly become a microgravity clean-up disaster. Wiping every last bit of water off your body and the curtain before it migrates into someone's career-making laser experiment renders the prospect of a head-to-toe free-floating shower slightly less appealing. For that reason, as well as the simplicity and effectiveness of it, sponge-baths with No-Rinse or special wipes are the favored solution. These types of baths have been used by travelers for years and continue to be used by maritime travelers in ports with little access to freshwater, including submarines, where space is at such a premium that people of all genders use the same bathing area. Like submarines, space in space is at a premium. The resulting lack of privacy increases the desire to bathe quickly, quietly, in a spare moment in an unused sleeping area, rather than setting up a folding shower where your crewmates might come cruising by. Hair Care in Free Fall While astronauts can clean their bodies using the No-Rinse method, hair requires a bit of extra care. Modern space-based hair hygiene is less about showering and rinsing and more about squirting and rubbing. Rinseless shampoo, similar to what is used to wash the hair of hospital patients laying in their beds, helps to save water, time and damage to the vehicle. Trimming hair and beards without hurling razor cuttings into eyes and the air ducts means using suction: employing a vacuum while in a vacuum for the sake of health, hygiene and, yes, style. As international icons whose images circulate world-wide, astronauts need to maintain appearances. So, even though launching 1 kilogram into orbit can cost between $1,500-$35,000, we keep them clean — for their health and humanity's pride in maintaining a fleet of well-cared-for humans in space. Strap In Showering when you are accelerating toward the center of the Earth at the same rate as the water is a categorically different experience. How people experience space is starting to change. It has already changed. "How do astronauts shower in space?" is a question we are continuing to ask as we look forward to more and more citizen-astronaut crews, space tourists and orbiting hotels full of people who likely want to enjoy their once-in-a-lifetime vacations in olfactory peace. What hasn't changed is the need to maintain hygiene to maintain human health. Right now, on Earth, lack of consistent access to clean water results in more suffering and death than wars, insects and famine combined. The art and science of water conservation and water recycling that ISS crews have mastered over the last generation could save, without exaggeration, tens of millions of lives every year. While today's astronauts hurl used clothes and contaminated food wrappers toward the Earth to be burned on atmospheric re-entry, that, too, is changing. Tide is developing cleaning solutions for the ISS that needs little, if any, water. In a world and on a station where clean water, clean air, clean food and clean people are at a premium, developing and testing the long-term technology to limit water use to two gallons of water per day while maintaining health and happiness is revolutionary. While here on Earth we've mastered the basics of hygiene and may take it for granted, astronauts have to keep it constantly in mind. Practicing good hygiene in space is a necessary step for protecting the whole mission. Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.

Heavenly Hygiene: How Do Astronauts Shower In Space?

Food allergy prevalence is rising globally. Since there is no effective cure and allergy often comes with life-threatening anaphylaxis, people are advised to steer clear of risky foods and carry an EpiPen. However, a recent study reported in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) shows that although almost 19% of surveyed adults believe they have a food allergy, only 10.8% fit the criteria based on clinical signs and diagnostic rigor. Food allergy testing with advances in precision medicine could help untangle the myths from the facts, helping a growing population worldwide manage day-to-day life and avoid restrictive dietary practices.What Defines a Food Allergy?A food allergy is not a sensitivity or intolerance. It is an immune-mediated response to allergens in foods. When certain foods are eaten, or simply touched or inhaled, these sensitizing markers trigger the immune system into overdrive.According to the Mayo Clinic, signs of an allergic reaction come on within a few minutes or a couple of hours, and include itchiness and hives, swollen lips, and vomiting among other symptoms. Exposure to an allergen triggers an overwhelming cascade of immune responses, releasing highly potent compounds such as histamine that activate further adverse tissue reactions. Anaphylaxis is the most severe reaction, with constricted airways and a swollen throat. Blood pressure can drop sharply and without treatment, consciousness is lost rapidly leading to coma and death.While a food intolerance may be uncomfortable, it does not involve an immune response or risk death. As described by the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology (AAAI), food intolerance affects the gut; feeling bloated is a commonly reported symptom, along with other gastrointestinal disturbance. Although oral immunotherapy shows some promise as a preventative measure, the only treatment for food allergy is strict avoidance. Intolerance is a lifestyle choice, whereas an allergy isn't.Food Allergy TestingFood allergy testing involves assessing the antibody response to allergen exposure. The Mayo Clinic advises that definitive diagnosis needs a combination of approaches, including skin tests and antibody response.The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lists eight common allergens including fish, eggs, shellfish and peanuts. During skin testing, a small amount of the foods is scratched into the skin; allergy shows up as bumps and redness. However, this isn't definitive, so other tests including dietary challenges are useful. It is worth noting here that measuring antibody levels is only useful if the test is for immunoglobulin E (IgE). Both the AAAI and the Canadian Society of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (CSACI) do not recommend food-specific IgG food allergy testing as it has no scientific basis.Why the Increase?A 2017 review in the journal Immunity notes that there has been a sharp increase in people with food allergies over the last two decades but there's still no conclusive evidence to show why this is happening. Although it's likely that environmental factors modify risk, the BBC notes that links to increased pollution and antibiotic use have not been proven.One theory is that increased exposure to novel foods could be driving the increase. As global trade and increased leisure travel bring us into contact with other cultures, our dietary choices also diversify, bringing us novel foods and ingredients to explore. Skin sensitization to peanut oil in diaper cream and wheat proteins in face soap has been linked to food allergy.Conversely, previous advice on limiting early childhood exposure to allergens may also have caused the increase in food allergy. A review published in Nutrients overturns advice given in the 1990s to avoid peanuts during pregnancy and in infancy. Numerous studies showed that delaying exposure was associated with development of food allergy.Potential Treatment and DiagnosisAlthough there are some potential treatments under investigation, the current cure for food allergy is strict avoidance. There is, however, strong evidence that eating a varied diet from early childhood could help stop many food allergies developing. For example, the LEAP Study in the UK shows that exposing children to peanuts from early infancy reduced incidence of peanut allergy.Oral immunotherapy, where patients desensitize themselves by eating increasing amounts of the allergen, shows some promise. With successful treatment, patients can eat more of the food before triggering a response. Unfortunately, this only works as a preventive measure and the allergy returns if treatment lapses.There are also trials looking at epicutaneous immunotherapy, using skin patches to deliver food allergens. However, a recent study in children published by JAMA showed inconclusive resultsThere is also currently no single diagnostic test that identifies allergy or indicates its severity; the only option many people have is to avoid the food completely. Business Wire describes how immunoglobulin E (IgE) epitope mapping could both identify allergies and show how severely a person might react. A precision medicine approach like this could help many people manage food allergy with less impact on daily life.

A Look at Food Allergy Testing and Diagnoses

The past year has shown that medicine and medical treatments aren't necessarily confined to the doctor's office. Even as a pandemic shook the world, telemedicine and AI technology helped to ensure people got the care they needed. In the future, medicine might be even smarter. We could check our blood for infection from the comfort of home. Rather than racing a dehydrated patient to the hospital, we could find a tap and turn plain water into sterile IV fluid. Whenever and wherever we are, medical imaging tools could scan our bodies and send automated read-outs to human and AI medical experts anywhere in the world (or worlds). That's the dream for someday on Earth. But it's already starting right now in space, where aerospace medicine is laying the groundwork for the healthcare of tomorrow — hundreds of miles above ground. Generation Space Health Healthcare innovation has been trickling down from orbit for as long as humans have been rocketing up toward it. As part of NASA's mandate, the organization both funds research and shares its discoveries with the public. A very large number of discoveries have made it possible to safely go to space and back. In the 63 years since NASA's inception, thousands of patents have launched into successful and life-sustaining patient-facing products. In order to land on the Moon in 1969, NASA invented digital image processing. That technology was later shared and integrated into a number of devices, including MRI machines and CT scanners. A generation or so later, the Hubble space telescope's ability to see fine detail at high resolution spun off into a company that made breast biopsy imaging devices. Rather than just looking out, NASA's technology now looks in to pinpoint possible tumor locations. It also lays at the heart of a series of programmable pacemakers, robotic surgery tools, suture material that can hold an organ together — and currently runs through cables on the International Space Station (ISS). This high-end healthcare innovation is life-saving but requires something hard to come by on Earth and even harder to find off it: hospitals. In the United States, hospital transit times by ambulance can be measured, from some rural communities, in hours. In bad weather, transport can become impossible. In developing countries and isolated communities, hospital care isn't an option. In low-Earth orbit, where humans have been living continuously for twenty years, there has never been a hospital. Astronauts in medical distress are evacuated back to Earth. The concept of "stabilize and transport" works well in space and on Earth only when the patient can survive the trip and the trip is short. Beyond the moon, transport times to a hospital back on Earth stretch out to more than four days. In the high mountains of Peru and Nepal, and in the Antarctic winter, no amount of time may be enough to bring a patient to safety. This is why bringing healthcare to humans, wherever they are, is the goal of aerospace medicine. Here or There: Definitive Care Everywhere In places in the solar system where a hospital is available, the question becomes — is it needed? In December 2020, a device flew to the ISS to test how well we could diagnose diseases from a distance. The HomeCue system, made by a Swedish company, is designed to help identify illness by counting all kinds of white blood cells — from neutrophils and lymphocytes, which increase in size and number with acute infections, to eosinophils and basophils, which respond to allergens and parasites. But would such a system work in space, where every drop of blood drawn tries to float away? As of March 2021, HomeCue remained in orbit. Anchored to the workstation by footholds, astronauts worked with the system in a small expandable plastic tent, keeping blood from leaking into other parts of the station while keeping the station — which houses an interesting and somewhat unique collection of microflora — from coming near the collection area. If it proves successful, similar systems could be deployed all over the Earth — at farms, cliffside villages or even home countertops. But if a problem were detected in these austere and remote environments, what would the next step be? In space — and many other hard-to-reach locations — it might be easiest to reach for autonomous support. In fact, autonomous medical operations (AMO) have been taking place in space and on Earth for decades. For example, in 1999, under the guidance of a specialist in Indianapolis, Dr. Jerri FitzGerald diagnosed and began treating herself for cancer while deployed in Antarctica. The autonomous medical system under development is meant to supplement crew training. Before launch, all members of space crews are trained in basic and even some advanced medical skills, such as taking temperatures, giving anesthetics, pulling teeth and stitching wounds. Given their constant connections to the ground, astronauts on the ISS call mission control to seek guidance in handling trickier medical problems. But the time it takes to send a message one way increases over ten minutes each way. In the future, when crews one day travel to Mars, astronauts will need a more close-at-hand consult. The idea behind AMO is that it can guide local users down a path of actions that need to be taken sooner rather than later: checking blood pressure, putting a blood sample into the HomeCue, using an ultrasound to look at an appendix, etc. The hope is that by the time the images are ready for review, information from a specialist somewhere on Earth will have reached the patient's remote area, whether that's in the middle of the ocean or in the middle of deep space. For half a century, aerospace medicine has been deeply involved in developing ways for non-specialists to use tools such as an ultrasound to aid in remote diagnosis. At the end of last year, remote use of a commercial, off-the-shelf ultrasound scanner was used in conjunction with AMO and telemedicine from the ground. The goal was to build a medical advisor, also known as a Medical Decision Support System. Such a tool would allow astronauts and doctors on Earth to bypass delays brought by distance or time, diagnosing and treating emergent conditions in place. Reuse, Recycle, Re-Infuse The good news is that medical decision support systems might one day soon be suggesting treatments. The less-good news is that treatments often require a lot of stuff. Even big hospitals run out of basic supplies, such as saline, after hurricanes knock out parts of the supply chain or pandemics slow down delivery. But healthcare innovations from the last half century have lead to huge gains in recycling and reclaiming water from food, urine and even sweat. Now, aerospace medicine is taking this reclaim-and-recycle process one step further: turning what came out of the blood into something capable of going right back into it. Enter IVGEN, an intravenous fluid generation device. This is a portable water purification system that's small and light enough to easily fly to the ISS. Not only has IVGEN made medical-grade water from reclaimed fluids, but it can also add salt in the right proportions so that what comes out could be infused back into a patient needing fluid resuscitation. In the decade since that technology first flew into space, IVGEN sat stored on a shelf for two years. Then, they turned it back on — just to see if it would work in the middle of a Mars mission or after gathering dust in a remote health clinic. It did. Now, the technology is now being further automated to see if we can use the system, its collector, purifier, mixer and bags to directly infuse a patient, freeing up caregiver time and further healthcare resources. Looking Ahead: Far, Far Ahead Sixty-three years of human spaceflight makes for a lot of trickle-down technology. Much of it was designed to keep explorers alive in a near vacuum, among microgravity and high radiation. All of it was built to take up minimal mass and volume. The one thing astronauts lack in space is, well, space. A shockingly small amount is available for equipment of any kind — much less equipment that might be used once in a blue moon, if ever. By design or cosmic coincidence, Earth's healthcare needs have also trended that way: lighter and smaller. Personal and portable is where we're headed, wherever we're headed. In some ways, healthcare on Earth is just catching up to where aerospace medicine was going all along. Together, we're getting better, faster, and traveling further, safer. Interested in all things in outer space and exploration? We are, too. Take a look at open positions at Northrop Grumman and consider joining our team.

Future Aerospace Medicine: Coming to a Planet Near You

Researchers at the University of Toronto recently developed a new method for cancer detection that could catch the disease before symptoms appear. When cancer is detected early, patients may have better survival rates, according to the National Cancer Institute, but we don't have effective screening tests for early detection of many types of cancers. The Toronto team led by Dr. Daniel De Carvalho combined several techniques to develop a blood test that reveals biomarkers for cancer.  A Blood Test for Cancer The researchers combined liquid biopsy, epigenetic alterations and machine learning to detect cancer by identifying molecular biomarkers in the blood that indicate cancer even at the very early stages, according to Nature. This isn't the first time that scientists have attempted to develop a blood test for cancer. Liquid biopsies, as these blood tests are called, detect small amounts of circulating-free DNA (cfDNA). In other words, they can find microscopic evidence of tumors circulating in a patient's blood. It's a growing segment of the medical field that is expected to hit more than $22 billion by 2022, according to MarketWatch. Previously, liquid biopsies haven't been specific enough or sensitive enough to help doctors identify a treatment plan. MarketWatch pointed out that low specificity and sensitivity are restraining factors of the liquid biopsy market, and BioNews reiterated this ongoing challenge, saying that previous liquid biopsy techniques had a low sensitivity for cancers at the earliest stages. Improving Upcoming Medical Technology The big challenge with liquid biopsies is that they are looking for a very small amount of cfDNA in blood, which is also filled with other protein that has nothing to do with cancer. There is simply too much data to draw useful conclusions.  "'We are very excited at this stage,'" Dr. De Carvalho said in a press release published on Science Daily. "'A major problem in cancer is how to detect it early. It has been a 'needle in the haystack' problem of how to find that one-in-a-billion cancer-specific mutation in the blood, especially at earlier stages, where the amount of tumor DNA in the blood is minimal.'" Carvalho and his team approached the problem as if they were data scientists. They profiled changes in gene expression called "epigenetic alterations," which helped them identify thousands of modifications unique to each cancer type, according to the press release. Then they applied machine learning to sift through all the data to create classifiers to highlight the presence of tumor DNA within blood samples and, importantly, to determine the type of cancer. So far, they have profiled and successfully matched more than 700 tumor and blood samples. Looking ahead, the team will analyze data from large population health research studies already under way in several countries, where blood samples were collected months to years before cancer diagnosis.  Are We There Yet? While this work makes great progress toward an effective liquid biopsy, early cancer detection hasn't been solved yet. In Nature, Carvalho and his colleagues explained, "'This work sets the stage to establish biomarkers for the minimally invasive detection, interception and classification of early-stage cancers based on plasma cell-free DNA methylation patterns.'" Even if this technique is perfected in the future, liquid biopsies still wouldn't be a cure-all medical technology. The American Cancer Society pointed out that just because a small amount of cancer is identified doesn't mean doctors know what to do next. Treatment depends on the type of cancer and how aggressive it is. In fact, some cancers are so slow-growing that they would never need treatment.

Machine Learning Approach to Cancer Detection

Key Takeaways  Wearable medical technology helps connect patients to the IoT for real time health monitoring. Sensors built into an E-tattoo give semi-permanent, non-invasive 24/7 tracking capability from the skin surface. E-tattoos could replace traditional wearable tech to monitor patient vital information and even deliver drugs.Medical devices such as pacemakers, insulin pumps or heart monitors provide vital monitoring, but they can get in the way. The newest healthcare wearables, on the other hand, are so thin and flexible that patients might even forget that they're wearing them at all.What Is an E Tattoo?Electronic tattoos (also called e tattoos or digital tattoos) are similar to temporary tattoos for children — you get them damp, hold them to your skin, and then they stick for a few days or until you rub them off. While children's tattoos are simply decorative, medical tattoos can monitor important biomarkers such as heart rate, blood pressure, hydration or blood sugar levels.An e tattoo can be made of flexible electronic components such as conductive ink that can track important information about the person wearing it. According to Carnegie Mellon University, these tattoos are made using a liquid metal alloy to print ultrathin circuits. Just like a child's decorative tattoo, you need to get it damp to apply to the skin. Unlike traditional medical devices, these tattoos have properties that are similar to lightweight fabrics — they conform to any shape and still work even if you bend, fold, twist or strain them. It's like having a smart Band-Aid, or the human body equivalent of IoT.Digital tattoos are only possible because of new developments in 3D printing and circuit printing technologies. The Medical Futurist explained that digital tattoos can be made of materials such as gold nanorods, graphene or various polymers with a rubber backing. When the tattoo is attached to the skin, tiny electrodes can record information about the wearer and transmit it to smartphones or other connected devices. They could eventually replace other wearable technology because they'll be more accurate due to direct and constant contact with the skin. Plus, they can operate without batteries because they can receive energy through electrophysiological processes. For example, Technology Networks described healthcare wearables that are powered by the piezoelectric effect, which means they can generate an electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress.Applications for Healthcare WearablesJust like traditional medical devices, healthcare wearables can track biomarkers that help patients and doctors monitor critical health conditions. These small, non-invasive devices could allow healthcare experts to monitor and diagnose heart rhythm problems (arrhythmia), heart activities of premature babies, sleep disorders and brain activities, according to Medical Futurist. They're as easy to wear as an adhesive bandage, but instead of covering a wound, they continuously monitor patients. They could even send alerts to medical systems. For example, if a patient's heart rate becomes critical, the device could automatically call an ambulance and transmit data to emergency medical staff.Here are three examples of this innovative healthcare technology, as detailed by Medical Futurist. Massachusetts-based company MC10 created a digital tattoo that can monitor movement, muscle performance or heart activity. The device uses stretchable metallic interconnects and rubbery polymers that form a system that can "sense, measure, analyze, and communicate information" about the person who wears it. It is thinner than a strand of human hair. Researchers from Harvard and MIT developed color-changing tattoos called Dermal Abyss, which can track dehydration and glucose levels for people with diabetes. The tattoos use special inks that can measure the concentration of glucose, sodium and pH in the skin. For example, the ink's color "intensifies as the wearer's sodium levels rise, which is often a sign of dehydration," or changes from green to brown when glucose levels rise, which could be used by diabetics to monitor their blood sugar levels. South Korean researchers created a similar glucose-monitoring patch that goes a step further to also administer medication. A team at Seoul National University developed sensors that can detect body temperature and the pH/chemical composition of the sweat of people with Type 2 diabetes. The device transmits the data to a smartphone app that determines the correct amount of medication based on the status of the wearer's sweat. Then a tiny needle array in the patch injects medicine right into the person's body.Outlook for Wearable Medical DevicesAs healthcare technology gets smaller and smarter, wearables such as e tattoos could minimize the ways in which essential medical devices interfere with a patient's life. Most e tattoos are still in the research and development stage. Eventually, these devices could be less invasive than traditional methods, while also being just as accurate and reliable as current devices. Plus, they do look pretty cool, which might mean that more people would want to wear these life-saving devices.At Northrop Grumman we're making something incredible; join us to push the boundaries of sensor technology for healthscience.

The E Tattoo Is the Future of Healthcare Technology

Imagine suffering a devastating back injury and facing a lifetime of reduced mobility. Now, researchers at the University of Minnesota are developing an exciting potential treatment. They're taking the concept of 3-D printing in healthcare to new levels with an implantable device impregnated with neuronal stem cells. Made of silicone, the cellular matrix would be implanted into an injury area, acting as a bridge between living nerve cells. According to a study in Advanced Functional Materials, the device could become the basis for a new approach to treating spinal cord injury and could one day help reduce pain in patients while restoring some function. Printed Teeth, Pills and Tissue 3D printing began about 40 years ago but has only recently come into its own, accelerating the development of healthcare technology, rapid prototyping and many other fields. In 2015, researchers at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands created 3-D—printed teeth made of antimicrobial plastic; tests found that the plastic killed over 99 percent of the bacteria that causes tooth decay, according to New Scientist. In a study published by the European Journal of Trauma and Emergency Surgery, another group of Dutch researchers found that their 3-D—printing process for artificial cadavers "results in accurate models suitable for preoperative workup." In 2017, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology developed 3-D—printed microparticles that can release multiple vaccine drugs over an extended period of time with just a single injection. That could mean a lot for vaccine efficiency and disease eradication. Meanwhile, 3-D printing techniques promise better artificial organs — companies like San Diego-based Organovo are developing bioprinted liver tissue, which could first be used as a means to check the safety of drugs. But 3-D printing in healthcare isn't just experimental — it's already benefiting many patients. In 2016, Aprecia Pharmaceuticals began shipping the first 3-D—printed drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Spritam (levetiracetam), which is designed to treat epilepsy. The company's ZipDose technology creates superporous printed pills that are formed from multiple layers of powder bound together with an aqueous fluid. That gives them the ability to dissolve instantly when they come into contact with a liquid, making them easier to ingest, said ComputerWorld. Reaping the Benefits Developing drugs without animal testing is just one example of how massive savings in time and money could result from 3-D printing in healthcare. Another is prosthetics. A South African initiative called Robohand used 3-D printing methods to produce artificial limbs for as little as $500 to $2,000, far below the $10,000-plus cost of conventional healthcare technology for prosthetics. In fact, basic bioprinters that can print cells can be had for as little as $10,000 — compare that to the cost of a kidney transplant at approximately $300,000. But perhaps the most revolutionary potential of 3-D printing in healthcare is the ability to democratize drug manufacturing. Leroy Cronin, a chemist at the University of Glasgow, worked with colleagues to produce 3-D—printed chemical reaction vessels that can convert simple starting compounds into a muscle relaxant called baclofen, which is used to treat muscle spasms, reported Science. The technology could be used to produce medicines that are not commercially viable or as a dispensary in remote locations. It also paves the way for patients to one day print their own medicines at home; doctors in the future might give out algorithms instead of prescriptions for drugs, said the Washington Post. From nerve implants to home pharmacies, 3-D printing technologies hold a lot of promise for healthcare. And we're just at the beginning of this revolution. Does creating technology to improve quality of life interest you? If so, take a look at our Careers page to see our exciting, difference-making opportunities.

3D Printing in Healthcare Will Bring Huge Savings

The field of regenerative medicine seeks to replace, engineer or regenerate human and animal cells, tissues or organs with the goal of establishing or restoring normal function. Researchers hope that stem cells — the body's master cells, from which all cells with specialized functions are generated — may one day be used to treat and cure many severe human diseases. Now, a recent study published in Nature may have moved the field significantly closer to reaching that goal. Mimicking Nature A research team at Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) led by Professor Kunyoo Shin in Pohang, South Korea, was able to create multi-layered miniature organs called assembloids that precisely mimic human tissues, SciTechDaily reports. The breakthrough represents a first for regenerative medicine. "These assembloids are the world's first in-vitro reconstituted organoids," Eunjee Kim, the first author of the paper, told SciTechDaily. "We can precisely model a variety of complex intractable diseases such as cancer, degenerative diseases, and various neurological diseases including schizophrenia and autism, and understand the pathogenesis of such diseases to ultimately develop better therapeutic options." Organoids — often called miniature organs — are organ-like tissues derived from stem cells that imitate the structure and function of human organs. Unfortunately, they're not able to mimic the mature structure of organs because they lack critical interactions between various types of cells within the tissue microenvironment. Hence, the POSTECH team's decision to take a different approach to their regenerative medicine research. Taking a New Approach Shin's team focused on creating multi-cellular bladder tissues and tumor tissues as a way to study various bladder diseases, including bladder cancer. "We generated three-layered bladder assembloids by creating the epithelial (surface) layer with stem cell-derived organoids, the stromal layer (cell layer just below the epithelia layer) with stromal fibroblasts and endothelial cells, and the muscle layer with smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells," Shin said in a recent interview for Now. The POSTECH team also created patient-specific tumor assembloids by reconstituting tumor-cell-derived bladder tumor organoids with various types of cells found in tissue stroma and the tissue microenvironment, he added. Endothelial cells form the barrier between vessels and tissue and control the flow of substances and fluid into and out of a tissue. To create the bladder assembloids, Shin's team first isolated urothelial stem cells from primary tissues and embedded them in matrix gel to generate 3D bladder organoids. They also isolated other cells such as stromal fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells from the bladder, then cultured and expanded them in vitro (outside of the human body). For the tumor assembloids, they isolated tumor cells from human bladder tumor tissues, then embedded them in matrix gel to generate bladder tumor organoids. They also isolated cancer-associated fibroblasts from bladder tumor tissues from several patients, then cultured and expanded the fibroblasts in vitro. The various types of tissues and cells were then reconstituted to generate the bladder and tumor assembloids — a process that takes less than 10 minutes per assembloid, Shin said. Each assembloid is about 1 to 2 millimeters wide. Following the Signals Through testing, Shin's team discovered that the patient-specific tumor assembloids they produced perfectly mimicked the behavior of in vivo (within the human body) tumors. They used these assembloids to study the pathological characteristics of tumors. "Previous studies in our laboratory have suggested that signaling feedback between epithelial tumor cells and stromal cells play an important role in tumor plasticity and tumor subtype determination," commented Shin. He added that the team used the tumor assembloids and genetic engineering technologies to discover mechanisms by which signals from the tumor microenvironment determine the plasticity of tumor cells. "We think we can pharmacologically inhibit or activate the signaling between tumor and stromal cells with certain drugs," Shin enthused based on his team's findings. "By modulating these signals, it's possible to change the course of illness by inhibiting the growth of the tumor [â€¦] or changing an aggressive type of tumor to a less aggressive type." According to Shin, other scientists have tried creating human organs by fusing multiple organoids, but the results of those other studies have not been released. Assembloids, he emphasized, are not fusions of organoids but rather miniature organs created by reconstituting organoid tissue and various types of cells found in tissue stroma and the tissue microenvironment. The reconstitution process creates complex interactions among various types of cells, which can induce tissue maturation and generate mature organs. Regenerating the Future Shin is cautiously optimistic about what his team's work in assembloids will mean for the future of regenerative medicine. "Reconstitution of assembloids using cells from patients with intractable diseases such as cancer, degenerative disease or neurological diseases will enable patient-specific disease modeling," he suggested. "By using high-throughput drug screening on those patient-derived assembloids, we'll be able to develop patient-specific treatments for those diseases." However, to get there, Shin says his team will need to optimize the methods they use to obtain enough cells of the appropriate type from each patient to generate patient-specific assembloids. "Ultimately," he promised, "we will make our technology applicable to all human organs including the brain to develop better therapeutic options for precise and personalized therapy for many human diseases." Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery in science, technology and engineering.

Could Regenerative Medicine Breakthrough Help Cure Intractable Diseases?

Facial recognition technology has come a long way. But how does this form of identification work? How accurate is the process, and what's next for this face-first function? How Does Facial Recognition Work? Facial recognition tools often show up in movies, but they're rarely depicted correctly. On film, the process is easy: The heroes find a blurry image of a crowd that contains their potential bad guy, then they use facial recognition software to "enhance" the image. This almost instantly returns a host of information about the subject, from their name and date of birth to their address, favorite color, and complete Spotify playlist. In practice, it's not quite so simple. So how does facial recognition work? First, facial detection software scans an image for characteristics that indicate a human face — eyes, noses, ears, mouth, etc. Then, facial recognition tools convert faces in the image into a string of digital numbers of points, sometimes called a "faceprint." Finally, deep learning algorithms compare the generated faceprint with hundreds or thousands of other faceprints in a database to determine their similarity. If one (or more) matches are found, they're reported by the system along with "similarity scores" that indicate their level of likeness to the digital faceprint. The use of deep learning algorithms is critical here; they allow facial recognition systems to become more accurate over time as more information is stored and processed. When it comes to accuracy, facial recognition has seen marked improvements. In 2014, the most accurate algorithm had an error rate of 4.1%. By 2020, this number fell to just 0.08%. It's worth noting, however, that positive matches aren't guaranteed even with better technology. A 2019 study of algorithms found they were 10 to 100 times more likely to return false positives for women and people of color while recent research found that facial alterations due to plastic surgery can significantly affect the efficacy of facial recognition. What's Next for Facial Recognition Technology? While challenges such as privacy concerns remain a roadblock to the adoption of facial recognition frameworks at scale, the technology does offer the potential for advancement in other areas. Consider the use of facial recognition in advertising. A system implemented at the Piccadilly Circus lights in London leveraged facial recognition technology to pinpoint the age, gender and mood of shoppers passing by and then tailor advertisements based on this information. While the initiative faced pushback from privacy groups over the use of this data without consent, the concept sets the stage for more targeted facial advertising — so long as users are provided with details about how their faceprint will be used and are given the chance to opt-in. Automakers are also looking to leverage facial recognition as a way to personalize driving experiences. At the CES convention in Las Vegas, several car companies demonstrated facial recognition systems capable of recognizing vehicle owners and unlocking car doors as they approach. These systems could also be used to customize seat and mirror positions and even provide audible signals if they detect facial movements that suggest drivers are falling asleep. There's also a growing market for the use of facial recognition in autonomous vehicles; cars may be in charge of the driving, but owners don't want anyone just taking off on a joyride. Robust facial identification could offer a measure of security for autonomous vehicle owners while also making it easy for them to get on the road ASAP. Another application for facial recognition is health care. By analyzing a patient's face, algorithms can look for specific features that indicate the presence of rare diseases, in turn allowing patients to seek treatment or doctors to take targeted action. This is more than just speculation: In 2018, medical geneticist Omar Abdul-Rahman used a face recognition app to help confirm a case of Mowat-Wilson syndrome in a 3-year-old boy. The disease often presents with deep-set eyes, uplifted earlobes and a rounded nose, but it is so rare that many doctors have never seen a case. Using the Face2Gene diagnostic app for rare genetic disorders returned a potential match for Mowat-Wilson, and the parents of the boy agreed to a test, which came back positive. While these applications will never eliminate the need for in-person examination by doctors, they offer the potential to help confirm diagnoses or provide insight for individuals via telehealth connections. Putting Your Best Face Forward Like it or not, facial recognition is here to stay. From a consumer perspective, expect this technology to come with increasing controls around informed user consent even as automakers and other manufacturers look to leverage facial recognition as a way to provide customized user experiences. When it comes to health care, meanwhile, the future of facial recognition could help improve diagnostic accuracy, streamline symptom identification and shorten the time required for effective treatment. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery in science, technology, and engineering.

About Face: The Future of Facial Recognition Technology

Humans need to remember a huge assortment of information and experiences to be reasonably self-sufficient. While everyone forgets things occasionally, some people experience a severe form of memory loss called amnesia. While it's normal to occasionally forget where you parked your car, forgetting that you have a car might be a sign of amnesia in the brain. What Causes Amnesia? Amnesia can be the result of brain injury or damage, according to the Mayo Clinic. Causes may include:   A blow to the head  Brain inflammation due to infection  Lack of oxygen due to a stroke or heart attack  Seizures  Brain tumors  Brain surgery  Degenerative brain diseases such as Alzheimer's  Depending on the severity of the brain injury, amnesia may be temporary or permanent. It may improve as the brain heals or may become progressively worse as conditions deteriorate. Heavy alcohol users can develop alcoholic amnesia, which affects 1% to 3% of the population, according to the Cleveland Clinic. Researchers believe that alcohol prevents the body from processing vitamin B1, which is essential to memory formation. Brain damage from alcoholic amnesia is permanent in 80% of cases and can severely inhibit the ability to form new memories. What Are the Different Types of Amnesia? Anterograde amnesia is characterized by difficulty learning new information and forming new memories, and it's the most common form of amnesia in the brain. Retrograde amnesia involves difficulty recalling previously familiar information, including personal experiences and facts. Retrograde amnesia typically affects recent memories (the name of the neighbor that moved in last year) more than earlier memories (the name of your second-grade teacher). Older memories are stronger because they've been repeatedly reinforced over time. Post-traumatic amnesia occurs immediately after a significant head injury (e.g., from a car accident or sports injury) and can include trouble forming new memories, recalling old memories or both. Post-traumatic amnesia is usually temporary —lasting hours, days or weeks. As the brain recovers, lost memories may again become accessible. However, it's common for memories immediately surrounding the event to be "erased" since the brain didn't have time to form strong memories. Psychogenic amnesia can occur after experiencing significant emotional trauma, such as a violent crime. This usually involves an inability to remember past information surrounding the traumatic event but can be so severe that the person temporarily forgets their own identity. What Part of the Brain Is Affected by Amnesia? Much of what we know about amnesia started with Henry Gustav Molaison, more commonly known as patient H.M. According to The New York Times, Molaison suffered from epileptic seizures that didn't respond adequately to medication. At the age of 27, he underwent surgery to remove the brain areas thought to be responsible for his seizures — portions of the medial temporal lobes (MTLs) including the hippocampus. The year was 1953 and the surgery was very much experimental. The surgery reduced Molaison's seizures but also caused severe anterograde amnesia. He was unable to remember new information for the next 55 years, until his passing in 2008. During that time, he graciously agreed to participate in thousands of memory tests, despite forgetting the researcher as soon as they walked out the door. Because of Molaison's generosity, we now know that damage to the hippocampus results in severe deficits in verbal learning and recall. Molaison's short-term memory (which usually lasts five to 20 seconds) was found to be largely intact. He could recall a list of words immediately after they were presented. But after a few minutes, he could no longer recall the words or remember that a list had been presented. Molaison's other types of memory were found to be intact, even if he wasn't consciously aware of developing new memories. It's now believed that new memories depend on the hippocampus and are then forgotten or fully integrated with preexisting memories that are stored in other parts of the brain. Studies with other amnesia patients have helped determine what part of the brain is affected by amnesia. How Is Amnesia Diagnosed and Treated? To diagnose amnesia, health care providers may first assess memory through a conversation with the patient and observe how well they can recall past information. To identify a possible cause, doctors may order blood tests to check levels of vitamin B1, B12 and thyroid hormones. An MRI or CT scan can identify signs of a brain tumor or stroke. An EEG (electroencephalogram) can check for seizure activity, and a spinal tap may detect brain infections. There's no medication specifically for amnesia. Treatment typically focuses on the underlying physical or mental disorder: concussion, brain tumor, cardiovascular disease, emotional trauma, alcohol abuse, etc. For some conditions, amnesia may improve as the brain heals. In other cases, the focus is on slowing the decline. Psychotherapy or cognitive rehabilitation may help. Support from family and friends is essential. Patients may benefit from seeing photographs of past events, smelling and tasting favorite foods, and hearing familiar music. With persistent memory loss, patients may be able to compensate through organizational strategies, such as using a whiteboard or cellphone to keep track of essential information, appointments, etc. If memory loss is severe, patients will likely need help with daily life tasks. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Amnesia in the Brain: What Goes Wrong?

An ancient mummy can spark a heated debate among academics, even decades after its discovery. Recently, an international team of researchers revealed DNA evidence that refutes previously held beliefs about the origins and lifestyles of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies, which were found in China decades ago. Not Your Typical Ancient Mummy In China's arid Tarim Basin, hundreds of naturally mummified bodies were buried in boats. According to Smithsonian Magazine, researchers originally found the mummies in the early 20th century and then excavated the site in the 1990s. Ancient Egyptians intentionally preserved mummies following a specific protocol with religious meaning, but in this case, the desert environment naturally mummified bodies that were buried in the region. The mummies are up to 4,000 years old, but they are in excellent condition because the salty, dry desert prevented the bodies from decomposing. The authors of the research wrote in Nature, "The identity of the earliest inhabitants of Xinjiang, in the heart of Inner Asia, and the languages that they spoke have long been debated and remain contentious." Previously, scholars suggested that the mummies were migrants from West Asia. "The mummies have long fascinated scientists and the public alike since their original discovery. Beyond being extraordinarily preserved, they were found in a highly unusual context, and they exhibit diverse and far-flung cultural elements," Christina Warinner, an associate professor of anthropology at Harvard University and one of the authors of the Nature study told CNN. The researchers used DNA analysis to find out more about the genetic background of the mummies and even details about the way these ancestors lived thousands of years ago. Contrary to previous theories about the mummies being related to people in nearby regions, the new study proposes that they "appear to have arisen from a genetically isolated local population that adopted neighbouring pastoralist and agriculturalist practices, which allowed them to settle and thrive along the shifting riverine oases of the Taklamakan Desert." The researchers found evidence of milk proteins in the mummies' teeth, indicating that they ate dairy, which signifies an agricultural lifestyle that would be surprisingly advanced for the era and geographic isolation. "In contrast to their genetic isolation, however, they seem to have openly embraced new ideas and technologies from their herder and farmer neighbors, while also developing unique cultural elements shared by no other groups," Warinner said. Better Together: Science and Technology This revelation is one of many that are arising in scientific communities as technology provides new clues. Previous discoveries are now backed by physical evidence to support (or in the case of the Chinese mummies, to oppose) theories about historical events. Often, scientific discoveries emerge when new evidence is uncovered. Botanists discover a new plant in a remote location, a telescope captures images of a previously undiscovered galaxy, or archeologists excavate artifacts. Now, technological advances are enabling the scientific community to unlock novel discoveries from old evidence. Recent advances in computational power and artificial intelligence have boosted tools such as machine learning algorithms and DNA sequencing, which scientists can use to reveal new insights from specimens and data that previous generations of scientists meticulously collected and preserved. Today, computational biologists are studying plants on the genetic level to support agricultural and medicinal uses of plants. Astronomers are employing machine learning techniques to comb through massive amounts of images and data that telescopes such as Hubble collected over decades of space observation. And these high-tech tools are also useful for understanding historical context, such as where mummies came from and how they lived. DNA sequencing in particular is becoming increasingly useful for settling debate among researchers, solving crimes and enabling medical breakthroughs. This tool has suddenly become much more accessible. The National Human Genome Research Institute explains why: "Since the completion of the Human Genome Project, technological improvements and automation have increased speed and lowered costs to the point where individual genes can be sequenced routinely, and some labs can sequence well over 100,000 billion bases per year, and an entire genome can be sequenced for just a few thousand dollars." Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

DNA Evidence Reveals Secrets of Ancient Mummy Collection

Size matters, especially when it comes to performing delicate tasks. A heart surgeon couldn't work effectively with a pair of garden shears; no matter how well made, the tool simply isn't scaled appropriately to the job. The example might seem frivolous, but in many branches of medicine, such as cancer treatment, researchers and front-line physicians alike have been in the position of a surgeon equipped only with garden shears and carpenter's saws. This is why medical researchers have become interested in nanomaterials, and particularly in nanoparticles, objects that approach the atomic scale of size. Because key biochemical interactions operate on much the same scale, nanomedicine has emerged as a critical field of research. What Are Nanoparticles? So, what are nanoparticles? The prefix "nano" means one billionth and in the context of size means a billionth of a meter. As a reference point, according to CUNY, the typical size of a single atom is about 10-10 meters, more conveniently expressed as a 10th of a nanometer. The Conversation reports that nanomedicine concerns itself most broadly with objects and structures less than 1000 nanometers in their crucial dimensions — thus, about 10,000 atoms across. Often nanomedicine is interpreted more strictly as concerned with objects smaller than 200 nanometers across, the maximum safe size for injection into the bloodstream. Nanomaterials, as the International Journal of Nanomedicine notes, can be one-dimensional, such as nanowires and nanotubes, or even two-dimensional, such as exceedingly thin sheets of material. Nanoparticles are classed as "zero-dimensional" nanomaterials because they're nano-scaled along all dimensions. Nanoparticles in Medicine As The Conversation notes, one particular class of nanoparticle has become very well known indeed: so-called mRNA vaccines, such as the Moderna and Pfizer COVID-19 vaccines. These are built around nanoparticles formed of lipids and fatty acids. This technology, unknown until a few years ago, has already had a transformative impact on global public health. In essence, these vaccines package a payload of mRNA into nanoparticle "target drones," comparable in size and configuration to the coronavirus. These are then injected into the bloodstream, where they train the immune system to recognize and attack the coronavirus on sight. Other current nanoparticle applications include rapid COVID-19 and pregnancy tests. These work on quite a different principle. The nanoparticle in these applications is made of gold (!), and its nano-scale size allows it to be injected into the bloodstream. It also responds to quantum forces that operate only on very small scales, producing visible responses — colored bands — that larger particles couldn't produce because of the fundamental physics involved. While the development of mRNA vaccines has already more than repaid our research effort in the nanoparticle domain, the Holy Grail of nanomedicine remains what has been dubbed precision or personalized medicine, and cancer treatment in particular. But this effort has proven to be extraordinarily challenging — much tougher than researchers originally expected. Some of the difficulties are, not surprisingly, related to small size, which makes a nanoparticle less rugged than a larger structure would be. Nature reports that a nanoparticle, often abbreviated to NP, confronts "both physical and biological barriers — including shear forces, protein adsorption and rapid clearance — that limit the fraction of administered NPs that reach the target." In short, the human body is a demanding environment. But the even greater challenge is that living beings are extremely varied environments. The Challenge of Heterogeneity The challenge, in a nutshell, is heterogeneity — otherwise known as the enormous variety of nature, extending from the differences between research animals and human patients to the differences among individual patients. According to Nature, researchers have been confronted with "underexplored heterogeneity both in the biological underpinnings of diseases and amongst patients." On a practical level, the challenge isn't unlike a burglar attempting to pick a lock. Many biochemical processes, good and bad, operate like a lock and key; the molecular key needs to fit the molecular lock to open it. The first requirement is for a key (or lockpick!) that fits the lock. Nanotechnology has made it possible for us to produce nanoparticle keys that are the right size for the lock. But that brings us face to face with what has turned out to be the real challenge: producing the specific key that will fit a particular lock. According to Medical Device Network, "In general, there is a lack of understanding about what makes patients different from each other in terms of why drugs lack ubiquitous efficacy." This is an enormous challenge. And it explains why, in spite of the triumph of the mRNA COVID-19 vaccines, nanoparticle researchers sometimes express a note of frustration. The good news is that making sense of complexity is, in a meaningful sense, what science as a way of thinking is all about. And a lot of science is waiting to be done to let us harness the full potential of nanomedicine. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Nanoparticles and Medicine: The Big Potential of the Smallest Cures

If you're reading this sentence, there's a good chance you're using corrective lenses like glasses or contacts. After all, Statista reports that over 60% of U.S. adults wear prescription eyeglasses. For many people, glasses or contacts are essential to engaging in the activities of daily life, such as recognizing faces and objects, reading, driving and navigating screens. While modern lifestyles have contributed to the need for glasses earlier in life — as explained in the journal Nature — there's a long history of human eyesight deteriorating with age. The Roman orator Cicero (106-43 BC) lamented that he needed his slaves to read texts to him aloud. Just a generation later, the Roman philosopher Seneca (4 BC to 65 AD) is said to have used a glass globe of water to assist with reading. Early corrective lenses were not glasses to be worn on the face, but similar to magnifying glasses that could be held over objects of interest. This Roman knowledge of magnification would be lost among Europeans during the medieval period, and it might have been lost entirely if not for the work of Arab scholars, as The American Biology Teacher notes. How Do Corrective Lenses Work? Corrective lenses work by altering the direction of incoming light waves so that an image is focused when it hits the retina at the back of the eye. Common vision problems include nearsightedness, farsightedness and presbyopia. Nearsightedness is when nearby objects appear clear, but faraway objects appear blurry. This occurs when the eyeball is too long, which leads to light waves focusing in front of the retina. Farsightedness is when faraway objects appear clear, but nearby objects appear blurry. This can occur when the eyeball is too short, so the focal point of light is behind the retina. Farsightedness can also be caused by presbyopia, which is when the lens near the front of the eye loses elasticity and cannot adjust to adequately focus on nearby objects. Presbyopia often develops in middle age. Who Invented Glasses? Around 1000 AD, Italian monks developed and used polished domes of transparent quartz as reading stones. These could magnify text and correct for farsightedness, as explained in the journal Survey of Ophthalmology. An unknown Italian inventor developed corrective lenses for glasses around 1285 AD. Glass-blown lenses were secured into frames made of wood, leather or animal horn. The glasses were then held in front of the face with one hand or clipped onto the nose. A painting from 1352 depicting monks reading and writing manuscripts shows one using a magnifying glass while another wears glasses, according to Survey of Ophthalmology. At that time, monks were some of the only people who learned to read and write. Around 1440, the invention of the printing press made reading more accessible and increased the demand for glasses. In the 1600s, Spanish craftsmen added ribbon so that glasses could be looped over the ears. Other noteworthy styles included the monocle (for one eye only), the lorgnette (which was held in front of the eyes with a long handle) and scissor-glasses (which could be folded). In 1730, English optician Edward Scarlette added rigid temples that extended over the ears, which is the most common style today. In 1784, Benjamin Franklin invented bifocals by cutting and joining together convex and concave lenses, which allowed him to see near and far without switching glasses. Who Invented Contacts? Contact lenses are thin corrective lenses worn "in contact" with the eye. They work in essentially the same way as glasses, according to All About Vision: by refracting incoming light so that an image is focused when it hits the retina. For people who are nearsighted, the lenses are thicker on the outer edges and thinner in the middle, just like concave lenses for glasses. For farsightedness, the thickest part of the lens is in the middle, just like convex lenses for glasses. Contacts can be much thinner than eyeglass lenses because they rest directly on the eye. "Who invented corrective lenses" is a complex question to answer. Like many scientific discoveries, there were many important steps toward creating the first contact lens. Leonardo da Vinci is given credit for the concept of contact lenses, as described by Lenstore. His sketches from 1508 show a person placing their face in a curved glass bowl filled with water to see objects on the other side more clearly. The water would be in contact with the eyes, so technically it's a contact lens. In 1636, after reviewing da Vinci's work, Frenchman René© Descartes proposed placing a glass tube filled with liquid in direct contact with the cornea to correct vision. In 1801, English scientist Thomas Young used Descartes' idea to create a 1/4-inch-long, water-filled glass tube that he secured to his own eye with wax. Despite these brave efforts, the technology just wasn't there yet. In 1887, a German artificial eye maker started making contact lenses out of glass. The lenses covered all available parts of the eye, including the whites. The glass was heavy, no oxygen could pass through it, and wearers could not close their eyes over the lenses. As you might imagine, these contacts could only be worn for a few hours at a time before they became excruciatingly painful. In 1936, the first plastic contact lenses were produced, which were much lighter and safer than glass contact lenses. However, they still covered the entire eye and were made of a hard plastic that didn't absorb water and didn't allow much oxygen to pass through. Thus, they were only comfortable for short periods of time. In 1948, a manufacturing mistake led to the discovery that contact lenses covering just the cornea (the colored part of the eye) would stay in place while the wearer blinked and looked around. These smaller lenses were far more comfortable. In 1971, the first contact lenses made of soft plastic were introduced. They were even more comfortable and allowed oxygen to reach the surface of the eye. Today, more than 90% of contact lens prescriptions are for soft lenses. Manufacturers continue to make improvements to glasses and contacts for health, comfort and style. More than 700 years after their invention, glasses are perhaps more essential than ever. By allowing people to easily read, write and learn, corrective lenses have undoubtably contributed much to new technologies being developed to maintain, restore and enhance our senses. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

The History of Corrective Lenses

When wine connoisseurs discuss the complex flavors of a particular wine, they are sharing a multisensory experience that involves more brain regions than almost any other human activity. Whether you find this discussion engaging or annoying will depend on your personal experiences with the benefits of wine and wine connoisseurs. Nonetheless, the process of savoring wine is surprisingly complex and has led Yale neuroscientist Gordon M. Shepherd to write a book, Neuroenology: How the Brain Creates the Taste of Wine, which builds on his previous book, Neurogastronomy: How the Brain Creates Flavor and Why It Matters. Shepherd uses the experience of wine tasting to better understand sensory perception, which involves detecting, recognizing, characterizing and responding to stimuli. Wine tasting is an especially attractive process to study because it involves all five major sensory systems: sight, smell, taste, touch and even hearing. Sensory Perception Flavor is created by the brain in the same way color is created by the brain using different wavelengths of light and their surroundings. No two people see color in exactly the same way. For example, some people have perceived a dress in a particular photo as white and gold while others say it's blue and black, as explained by the BBC. Other sensory systems — like pain — also involve the brain interpreting stimuli in ways that we typically can't control. In wine tasting, connoisseurs have become more aware of the different stimuli involved and have learned to use them in ways that elevate the experience. So does wine make you smarter? Maybe, but only if you savor what you are drinking. The Wine Tasting Process In wine tasting, the experience starts before any wine is poured. The taster will anticipate the event based on past experiences and develop other expectations based on visual cues, conversations and imagination. This mounts as the bottle of wine is presented, popped open and poured into a glass, activating even more memories of past wine experiences. A connoisseur often then moves the glass to inspect the wine for color and turbidity. This visual inspection influences the expected flavor, which is why wineries invest so much in glass bottles, fancy labels and old-fashioned corks. Next, a swirl of the glass releases aromas from the wine. The taster may lift the glass to their nose and take a deep breath in, engaging their sense of smell. At this point, experienced wine drinkers might be salivating at the imagined taste. The actual tasting then finally happens by taking just a sip and holding it in the mouth. This floods the taste and touch receptors on the tongue with sensory input. Connoisseurs might swirl the wine around their mouth with their tongue to expose all their taste buds to the drink, trying to detect what they can: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savoriness). The flavor of the wine can be further enhanced by breathing in through the lips to aerate the wine in the mouth. Volatile molecules released by the wine are carried up the back of the throat to smell receptors in the nose, especially as the taster then breathes out through their nose. This is referred to as retronasal smell. More than any other sense, smell is linked with memory — like the smell of your grandmother's cooking or freshly cut grass. The final step is ingestion, which is a conscious decision that closes the passage between the nose and the mouth, dampening the flavor. Once swallowing is complete, the flavor of the wine continues to linger. Throughout the process, experienced wine tasters are working to fit this particular experience with previous ones, evoking a collection of memories of taste, smell, sight, touch and sound. And all of this is further enhanced by conversations with other tasters, food and music. Flavor involves all the sensory systems of the head and upper body as well as and the muscles of the tongue, jaw and cheeks. It also activates the central brain systems for smell recognition, memory, emotion, motivation, reward and language. So does wine make you smarter? Yes, much like other sensory experiences that engage many areas of your brain can make you smarter — such as being a connoisseur of music, sports or food. Other Benefits of Wine It's important to note that excessive alcohol consumption can lead to well-documented health problems, including liver damage, obesity, increased risk of cancer and stroke, depression, and addiction. However there is some evidence that moderate consumption has some benefits. Wine tasting is an enjoyable experience for many people, which can help improve mental health. Numerous studies also suggest that alcohol consumption can improve physical health if done in moderation, which is defined as no more than one glass a day for women and two glasses a day for men. Benefits may include a reduced risk of heart attacks, strokes, Parkinson's disease, cognitive decline and a number of cancers. Other studies suggest that moderate alcohol consumption may improve memory, boost creativity and help you live longer. A 2017 study published in The Journal of Psychopharmacology, for example, found that students learning Dutch as a new language performed better if they had a pint of beer first. A 2018 study on mice published in Scientific Reports found that low levels of alcohol consumption can lower inflammation in the brain and help clear away toxins, including those linked to Alzheimer's disease. A 2019 article in Molecules explains that moderate red wine consumption reduced risk factors for cardiovascular disease, including blood pressure and "bad" LDL cholesterol. If you enjoy savoring wine in moderation, you can take comfort in knowing that you are engaging your brain in a very mindful activity. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

The Benefits of Wine Include Activating Multiple Brain Regions

For centuries, prosthetic limbs evolved so slowly that the ambulatory and functional gains they provided were offset by their limitations. An artificial device just couldn't possibly replace a natural arm or leg. But now, amputees are benefiting from innovative prosthetics — including hands that grasp and legs that support athletics. They look less artificial and behave more like near-natural extensions of the intricately mobile human body. The field of prosthetics is still far from perfect, but several advances are making artificial limbs "connect" more seamlessly to an amputee's actions. War Prompted First Innovation Cycle Before recent advances in bionics and neurology accelerated the pace of prosthetic development, artificial limbs and support devices were constructed of wood, metal and various fibers. A wood and leather toe attached to a foot of an Egyptian mummy from as far back as 950 B.C. is considered by Smithsonian Magazine as the earliest example of a prosthetic device. Over the centuries, the materials and shapes of prostheses changed — including a 16th century metal hand, pictured in Atlas Obscura, that looked like it was taken from a knight's suit of armor — but expectations largely remained modest. These rudimentary substitutions offered little help with grasping objects and walking. They were also uncomfortable. It's widely accepted that the estimated 60,000 amputations performed on soldiers in the Civil War prompted science to improve prosthetics, according to the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Indeed, an artificial arm developed between the Civil War and World War I had a wrist that turned clockwise while the elbow bent, letting amputee veterans feed themselves. Artificial hands created after World War I featured movable fingers, said the BBC. Enhancements continued throughout the 20th century; plastics made for more flexible prostheses, and electronics were incorporated in an attempt to give amputees more control of them. A Time of Rapid Advancements Flash forward to this century, and prosthetics have reached a point where artificial hands and legs are more intuitive, comfortable and aesthetically pleasing. Amputees can more aptly grasp objects with prosthetic hands and rigorously compete in athletics with artificial legs. Microprocessors drive these improvements, making prosthetic limbs responsive and easy to control, while synthetics make limbs seem more like real flesh. And rapid prototyping has reduced the cost of prosthetic limbs. "I've been amazed at how impactful rapid prototyping technology can be to the design process," said Oscar Castillo, a Northrop Grumman engineering manager who leads the company's FabLab in Redondo Beach, Calif. "Here at the FabLab, I've seen engineers leverage these technologies and their experience towards improving the lives of others with disabilities, from 3-D printed prosthetic hands to helping an artist with muscular dystrophy paint a little easier. It's incredibly exciting and fulfilling work." Recent advancements are too numerous to completely cite here, but some innovative prosthetics include "power" knees that support climbing as well as bionic hands with motors in each finger to work off electronic signals, enabling responsive movement and gripping. Science and Medicine Team Up As The Engineer noted, prosthetic development focuses on two areas: refining current socket-based technology or creating new systems that directly integrate into the body. Integration tries to overcome the longstanding hurdle of artificial limbs being unable to communicate with the brain. U.K. company Cambridge Bio-Augmentation Systems is attempting the difficult step of integration by developing an interface that could be surgically implanted into the stump of an arm or a leg, where it would assimilate with bone and connect directly to nerves. On that same track, MIT and Brigham and Women's Hospital are hoping new treatments in medicine enable seamless integration of prosthetics and technology. Created by MIT and performed by Brigham and Women's on a patient last year, a new surgery aims to pave the way for movement commands to be sent from the central nervous system to a robotic prosthesis. A "Hero Arm" Builds Esteem All these technological and scientific leaps also try to make amputees feel more confident with prosthetic limbs. Perhaps no product illustrates this more than Open Bionics' Hero Arm, a 3D-printed prosthesis that, through its design, tries to make amputees feel like superheroes. Luke Skywalker's lifelike bionic arm isn't here — yet. But prosthetic limbs are no longer uncomfortable, unseemly and unmanageable. They are helping amputees lead rich lives.

Innovative Prosthetics Aim To Make Artificial Limbs Seem Natural

Population studies for personalized medicine. Particle physics collisions. The internet of things, driven by omnipresent 24/7 smart devices. The exploding levels of data available across the globe makes data visualization a necessity. Only the data we can "see," after all, has value. But it's not all line graphs and bar charts. Many artists and even scientists themselves use creativity and imagination to reach new audiences. From an artist who explains flow dynamics through landscape sculpture to a tropical-disease researcher making an impact through sand art, data visualization brings the numbers alive. Why Visualize? Maybe you remember your first thrilling encounter with Excel, where a few clicks created "art" in the shape of graphs, pie charts and box-and-whisker plots. Suddenly the columns of numbers came to life and made sense. You can see this power amplified in infographics, such as this one on assistive technology: More eye-catching than lists of numbers, graphics help the viewer interpret and digest information intuitively. Fluid Dynamics in Motion What's more meaningful to you, a mathematical theorem    or a walk among the fountains in Alnwick Castle's Serpent Garden? Torricelli's equation shows that the speed of water leaving a container is a function of the height of the fluid above its exit point. Sculptor William Pye's Torricelli fountain in the Serpent Garden shows water jets falling in step with the columns of water that feed them. Both illustrate Torricelli's theorem of fluid dynamics, but only Pye's fountain shows data visualization at work. The equation explains what factors affect the magnitude of the jets. The fountain shows that shorter columns make smaller jets with fluid dynamics in action.  Enable targeting cookies to view this content. Put On a Show Performances can also make data come to life. Medical researcher Shelly Xie learned all she could about sand art to teach people about schistosomiasis, a parasitic disease with as much global impact and burden as malaria. For her piece "Neglected: A Story of Schistosomiasis Infection in Ghana," Xie built a light table on which she could project images of sand being manipulated with her hands in a real-time animation that took her audience beyond medical textbooks and health statistics and into daily life in the schistosomiasis zone. Creating shapes and images in sand brought audiences face to face with the inevitability of disease in endemic areas in a way that raw data never could. Digital animation similarly helps visualize data. For example, while it's difficult to explain the complexity of cancer and how cells escape control as they grow, digital artists Ben Fry and Casey Reas capture the complexity of malignant transformation using algorithms to display protein signaling among cancer cells. Generated from clinical research lab data, growing webforms vividly depict how protein signaling changes, becoming more dysfunctional and more "cancerous." Entertainment, Education, Information It's not all about entertainment, though. Data visualization translates information into more accessible forms. University of Toronto astrophysicists translated data from the Cassini spacecraft's unique mission into a tactile woodcarving of Saturn's ring structure for visually impaired people. They also made music by boosting the natural frequencies of Saturn's moons and rings system. This created a musical score that illustrates Cassini's final descent through the rings towards the planet. Even CERN, the European Council for Nuclear Research's massive underground facility, uses music. Software translates Large Hadron Collider event data into sounds that represent the different particles emitted during collisions.  As the term itself suggests, data visualization helps us "see" data. Artist Johannes Girardoni's installations rebroadcast the impact gallery visitors make on their surroundings to highlight the data we're surrounded with every day. Since you can't "see" the data generated by simply walking through an art gallery, art and technology collide as his pieces pick up subtle signals. Microprocessors translate sound, movement and light disturbances from visitors, replaying it back as noises and light or color changes within the piece of art. By confronting the viewer with all the data they generate, Girardoni hopes to inspire reflection on the amount of data that influences us in our daily lives. Value in Visualization Increasing data's value through visualization helps researchers, too. When bioinformatics researchers set protein folding data to a musical score, they found that reviewers quickly matched the sounds to structural conformation and molecular properties. Simply listening to the data helped pattern recognition. Combining visual analysis with listening could boost research into diseases driven by altered protein function, like Alzheimer's. Data visualization also untangles big data problems. Health information systems often rely on different data streams for proactive public health management. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Zika virus response, for example, depends on data streams from a number of sources, including disease surveillance and mosquito activity reports. Combining the streams into a meaningful and easily read display makes sense for a faster response. 

Data Visualization Brings the Numbers to Life

Superpowered people. There's a collective human fascination about the possibility, from the scores of sci-fi-driven movies to the more rigorous scientific inquiry that aims to extend lifespans, cure diseases and enhance basic biological functions. When it comes to modern human evolution, have we reached the end of the line? Or could superpowered humans be our next iteration?
The Science of Modern Human Evolution
Humans with extraordinary powers already exist — depending on how you define "extraordinary" and how willing you are to suspend some disbelief. Some stories, like that of "Lightning Man" Roy Sullivan, don't require a great stretch of the imagination: Sullivan was struck by lightning seven times and survived. While it's not exactly riding the storm, it's certainly out of the ordinary. Or consider the tale of Vladimir Durov, an animal trainer who claimed a telepathic connection with his companions. According to ThoughtCo., Durov's "powers" were tested in several experiments and appeared to work as described.

Beyond the occurrence of natural "mutants," Futurism suggests the possibility that technology-driven transhumanism could be the next step in modern human evolution. There's some support for this idea; as noted by Science Focus, the Human Genome Project has identified all human genes, while the CRISPR/Cas system has the ability to slice existing DNA and insert new, modified strands. The missing ingredient? A mutant gene — one that could enable the more exciting powers of flight, telekinesis or lightning strikes. Still, we've laid the foundation, and the possibility of gene-based evolution now exists.
Potential Avenues
Because modern human evolution has no set form, multiple pathways offer their own unique benefits. Consider the work being done at Harvard's Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering. Researcher Peng Yin and his team have developed a method that allows prebuilt DNA sequences to grow and join autonomously. The potential result is programmable molecular devices that could be used in a variety of synthetic biology applications. Meanwhile, New Atlas notes that there's also research being conducted on synthetic insulin-secreting cells that could help solve the problem of diabetes. It's not hard to imagine this technology enhancing basic human functions such as response and recovery time, even as it reduces the impact of a disease.
Speaking of enhanced human functioning, there's also a case to be made for technology-based solutions like the Guardian XO, a human exoskeleton developed by tech firm Sarcos, which could be used to give workers and military personnel a kind of "super strength."

Making (Brain) Waves

Another option? Rewiring our brains to access more than the 10 percent we use to get by in everyday life. While the notion is typically misunderstood — the entire brain may be engaged in specific tasks but our consciousness and control are limited to around 10 percent — Forbes details a new study from the Kellogg School of Management that attempted to give humans more direct control over their brain processes. Led by Moran Cerf, a professor of neuroscience and former computer hacker, the study worked with patients whose brains were open for surgery and trained them to alter their perceptions — allowing them to see one image with their eyes and "see" another simultaneously in their mind.

The potential? Extending control from sensory input to more complex brain functions such as feelings, in turn giving people agency over their own emotions. As noted by the National Institute of Mental Health, major depression "is one of the most common mental disorders in the United States." Even with super-human healing, speed and strength, humans bogged down by depressive episodes wouldn't get much done. Could complete brain control be the next frontier of modern human evolution?
Pros and Khans
So what happens if we take control of human evolution through advanced biology, technology or a combination of both? The capability comes with significant benefits, including the elimination of widespread disease, increased longevity, enhanced performance and — potentially — the addition of more-than-human capabilities produced by specially crafted genes.

The downside? Watch the old "Star Trek" episode "Space Seed" or "The Wrath of Khan" featuring Khan Noonien Singh, a genetically enhanced "superman" who — along with his empowered brethren — rules as a tyrant over ordinary human beings. There's also the risk that a better ability to manipulate human biology could provide opportunities to develop dangerous or deadly pathogens, prompting the need for improved biodefense solutions to help identify biological threats before they decimate entire populations.

For the first time in history, the direction of human evolution can be guided instead of merely accepted. While you won't run into Green Lantern at the gas station or see Batman at the coffee shop anytime soon, modern human evolution comes with wide-open potential: Technologically driven, biologically inspired advancements could pave the way for an entirely new iteration of "average" human beings.

Modern Human Evolution: Are Superhumans the Next Iteration?

Are humans born with "intelligence" genes, or is human intelligence determined by environmental factors, such as economic status or easy access to education?    When a team of researchers set out to answer this question, they discovered that more than 500 genes were associated with intelligence. The results, published in Nature Genetics, indicate that intelligence is much more complex than previously thought.   How Can We Test Intelligence?        Intelligence, as defined by Merriam-Webster, is the ability to learn new information and apply it to different situations. Despite this simple definition, many elements of intelligence are difficult to nail down.   Does intelligence live in the synapses of the brain, or somewhere else entirely? The New York Times reports that psychologists have tested various mental capabilities, such as memorization and verbal skills, but test results did not definitively determine the factors behind different intelligence levels. The New York Times adds that part of the issue is that "Standard intelligence tests can take a long time to complete, making it hard to gather results on huge numbers of people. Scientists can try combining smaller studies, but they often have to merge different tests together, potentially masking the effects of genes." Additionally, an individual's intelligence can be affected by various factors, such as exposure to chemicals, sickness or economic status, Vice says. Is there a better way to measure someone's intelligence? Scientists believe that the answer lies in DNA.            Enable targeting cookies to view this content.   Do Intelligence Genes Exist?       The University of Edinburgh recently released a statement announcing that more than 500 genes were found linked to intelligence. Harvard University partnered with the Universities of Edinburgh and Southampton to study the DNA of more than 240,000 people. The researchers determined that genes associated with intelligence could also control biological processes, with some genes even affecting longevity.  As Ian Deary of the Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology notes, "We know that environments and genes both contribute to the differences we observe in people's intelligence. This study adds to what we know about which genes influence intelligence, and suggests that health and intelligence are related in part because some of the same genes influence them." These results, published in Molecular Psychiatry, are illuminating, but also indicate that intelligence on the genetic level is far more complicated than once assumed.    The Future of Genetic Engineering    Research into the genetic components of various traits and conditions has already reshaped medicine. Genetic tests can help women prevent diseases such as breast cancer by revealing if they have a mutation that may put them at increased risk. Prenatal or preimplantation testing helps ensure that a child won't be born with a devastating genetic condition.  By learning which genetic mutations drive cancers, researchers have been able to use the drugs that work most efficiently to stop them, opening up a new field called precision medicine, according to the National Institute of Health.  There is even speculation that genetic engineering can improve human intelligence or produce the new evolution of superhumans. What's Next?  Scientists are still learning about intelligence genes. Once they learn more, however, the applications are myriad. One fairly immediate use for this knowledge will be to create techniques that can help children's intellectual development, with progress traceable genetically, according to The New York Times. Technology, rapidly making inroads in education, can dramatically shape what those interventions look like. Further down the line, scientists can engineer the genes, changing one or two to reduce the likelihood that someone will have a learning disability.                Before they can get there, though, there is still a lot more research to do.                                          

More than 500 Intelligence Genes Discovered

Key Takeaways  Telekinesis (Greek for "mind" and "motion") is the ability to move objects with your mind. There's no evidence of telekinesis in humans; popular "telekinetics" like Uri Geller have been debunked as frauds. The development of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) may provide powers akin to telekinesis by giving users direct control over computers and other devices.The human mind is an amazing thing: 100 billion neurons make it possible for us to walk, talk, think, create, build — the list is virtually endless. Human nature, meanwhile, inspires us to want more, to push the boundaries of brainpower and discover new skills. Some of the most sought-after of those skills include telekinesis, an ability that lets us interact with physical objects using only our thoughts.The hope for evolved human potential has spawned a host of pop-culture characters capable of wielding psychokinetic powers with both benign and deadly intent. From wise-beyond-her-years Matilda Wormwood to the aggrieved Carrie White — not to mention the entire Jedi order — telekinetic powers occupy a special place in the human cultural lexicon. The concept is also getting a signal boost thanks to 80s-era TV hit "Stranger Things" and one of its powerful protagonists, Eleven. (Heads up: this article contains "Stranger Things" spoilers.)Could humans eventually evolve abilities like Eleven? What is telekinesis, exactly? Do documented cases already exist? What role does technology play in these (possible) next stages of human evolution? Read on — or use your telekinetic abilities to instantly download the article into your brain. Either way works, but if you choose the latter, do us all a favor and take some detailed notes on how you did it, OK?Talking TelekinesisWhat is telekinesis? The term comes from the Greek words for "mind" and "motion." At its most basic, telekinesis — also known as psychokinesis (PK) — is the power to move objects with your mind. Strength often varies from user to user depending on the origin of their powers, training, age, and so on. As noted by Bustle, the character of Eleven in "Stranger Things" is able to throw large objects, turn electronic devices on and off, break glass and affect the bodily functions of other human beings. She's also able to access other dimensions — including the Void and the Upside Down — which appear to overlap one another in time (and possibly space) in a kind of multiverse configuration.The caveat? For most telekinetics, performing feats of mind over matter is incredibly taxing: Luke Skywalker struggled to lift his X-Wing out of Dagobah's swamp (though Yoda had no problem), and Eleven gets nose bleeds whenever she pushes her limits. When we last saw the "Stranger Things" gang, Eleven used her powers to close the portal between our world and the Upside Down, trapping the Mind Flayer on the other side and protecting the citizens of Hawkins. For its part, the Flayer looked on from its Upside Down domain, watching the Snow Ball dance and keeping an eye on those meddlesome kids.While much of the show has focused on Eleven's personal development after her Hawkins Lab breakout, she's also demonstrated considerable telekinetic evolution, suggesting that her powers aren't done developing. Sure, they're the result of unethical CIA experiments and sensory deprivation, but the groundwork is there: What if Eleven is just a small-screen simulacrum of powerful humans that have existed in hiding throughout history?A Brief History of Mind MagicSpoiler alert: There's no documented evidence that telekinetic powers are real. A quick search will turn up hundreds of videos online, but they simply don't have the scientific rigor to offer anything of substance. As noted by neuroscience professor Mark Breedlove in a recent EarthSky article, while "Stranger Things" does capture the 1980s government fascination with discovering human mind-powers, real life outcomes didn't match those of the show. No conclusive evidence was ever found to support telekinetic abilities.Some well-known "telekinetics" like Uri Geller have gained infamy for using sleight-of-hand illusions to replicate mental powers, but this hasn't dissuaded telekinetic studies entirely. As noted by Live Science, researchers have shifted their effort to "micro-PK," which is the ability to affect very small objects or outcomes over time. Again, these efforts have been unsuccessful.The Next Level?So maybe moving objects with our minds is out of reach right now — but what about in the future? Could the next stages of human evolution include PK abilities? From a purely biological standpoint, probably not. There's nothing in our environment that would compel that kind of evolution, and since we can't identify which genes — if any — might govern Eleven-type powers, attempting to modify genetic code would be unethical at best and incredibly dangerous at worst.But it's not all bad news. As noted by Psychology Today, technology could help bridge the gap between mind and matter by leveraging brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) to allow direct control over computers and other connected devices without the need for tactile or voice interaction. Some efforts focus on creating direct brain/device links to treat conditions such as blindness or paralysis, while others are developing thought-to-text solutions that allow users to instantly compose texts or emails. No, it's not exactly Eleven closing the portal to the Upside Down, but remember — she started out crushing Coke cans in a hospital gown. Mind-meld emails might seem unimpressive but could pave the way for a brave new world of telekinetic powers.Bottom line? "Stranger Things" is a nostalgic treat and Eleven is amazing, but don't expect to follow her gray matter road map anytime soon.No telekinesis? No problem — use your brain to help drive digital transformation. Learn more about Northrop Grumman's work in digital transformation.

Are Telekinetic Powers the Next Step in Human Evolution?

Why do we have fingers on our hands, and not on our heads? Hox genes. These are responsible for putting body parts in the right locations. They are like the body's genetic blueprint, and they're not just for humans. These genes are the foundation of the head-to-tail organization in other animals, too, such as flies, worms and mice. Occasionally, something goes awry, which can cause an insect to grow legs out of its head instead of antennae or genetic disorders in humans, such as malformed hands or feet. What Are Hox Genes? First, let's understand the bigger picture. Hox genes are a subset of Homeobox genes, which are a subset of Homeotic genes, the master regulators that control the development of whole-body segments or structures, according to Khan Academy. When they are overactivated or inactivated by a mutation, body structures such as limbs can still develop, but they may end up in the wrong place. For example, normal insect anatomy means that a bug should have six legs growing out of its thorax, antennae growing out of its head and wings on its back. But a genetic mutation could mess up the normal body plan (the basic structure of the animal) and cause a peculiar-looking insect that may not be able to fly. How They Were Discovered According to Stanford University's The Dish on Science, Thomas Hunt Morgan discovered the Hox gene family in 1915. Scientists in his research lab noticed that some fruit flies had an extra set of wings. They investigated and found the gene that caused the mutation and named it the Hox gene. During this era, William Bateson, the British biologist who founded and named the science of genetics, also made similar observations in other organisms. He studied:   Crayfish with extra oviducts (reproductive tubes)  Bees with legs where antennae should have been  Humans with extra fingers, toes or ribs  Broader Implications In the century since Hox genes were discovered, scientists have continued to investigate how these genes create blueprints for our bodies and why they sometimes go wrong. In 2019, Technology Networks reported that an international group of researchers found a method that can systematically identify the role each Hox gene plays in a developing fruit fly. "The genome, which contains thousands of genes and millions of letters of DNA, is the most complicated code ever written," said Richard Mann, PhD, one of the researchers. "Deciphering this code has proven so difficult because evolution wrote it in fits and starts over hundreds of millions of years. [This] study offers a key to cracking that code, bringing us closer than ever to understanding how Hox genes build a healthy body, or how this process gets disrupted in disease." Not only do these genes play an important role in embryo development, but they also seem to have a role in certain types of cancers, such as leukemia, according to News Medical. Further research on these mysterious genes could help us understand both human and animal genetics — and maybe even provide the foundational science needed to cure certain genetic disorders and other diseases.

Hox Genes: The Blueprint for Your Body

While it may have felt like an eternity, effective treatments for COVID-19 have been discovered quite quickly with the help of miniature lab-grown organs called organoids.What Are Organoids?These tiny lab-grown organs are less than a centimeter wide and typically grown in plastic Petri dishes. As an article in Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology explains, organoids come from stem cells, which are commonly derived from adult skin cells that have been treated so that they revert to an undifferentiated state. It's like erasing a computer hard drive and starting over. When these stem cells are treated with just the right combination of molecules in just the right order, they will divide to produce the different cell types of the appropriate organ system. These cells will self-organize into a tiny 3D structure with roughly the appropriate structure—with certain cells on the outside, other cells on the inside, some cells forming tubes, etc. In this way, scientists can produce tiny models of lungs, stomachs, intestines, brains, hearts, kidneys, and more.Moreover, these tiny organs can be produced with specific variations in the DNA sequence that might make someone more or less susceptible to a disease such as COVID-19. These organoids can be used to identify effective viral infection treatments before they are given to humans.Organoids and the Fight Against COVID-19The first COVID-19 patients provided an initial understanding of how COVID-19 affects the human body and produces symptoms. Infection in the lungs can cause pneumonia and acute respiratory distress. Infection in the gastrointestinal system can cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. As COVID-19 became a global pandemic, an unfortunate deluge of patients soon revealed less-common effects on the brain, heart, kidney and other organ systems.An army of medical professionals on the front lines were doing everything they could to treat the patients in front of them, trying not to become patients themselves, and reporting what they were learning about the disease. Meanwhile, an army of scientists were working in the lab to understand how the COVID-19 virus binds specific proteins and infects specific cells and testing which viral infection treatments might be effective. While patient samples provided some information, laboratory experiments with organoids were essential for accelerating our collective understanding of which small molecules, antibodies and vaccines were effective against COVID-19, as an article in Nature Methods explains.The World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a pandemic on March 11, 2020, according to the CDC. On May 1, 2020, the antiviral drug Veklury (remdesivir) was approved as a COVID-19 treatment by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration through an Emergency Use Authorization, and then fully approved on October 22, 2020, for patients 12 and older. This rapid approval would likely not have been possible without the use of organoids in the earliest studies.Brain organoids have played an essential role in understanding how the COVID-19 virus infects and affects the brain. This has led to the discovery that infection of brain organoids can be prevented by antibodies that bind a protein called ACE2, or by administering spinal fluid from someone with an active COVID-19 infection. The ACE2 protein was also found to be associated with COVID-19 infection in kidney and liver organoids. By using liver organoids generated from individuals with a specific liver condition (nonalcoholic steatohepatitis), it was discovered these individuals are much more likely to have their liver cells infected by the COVID-19 virus. While preventing COVID-19 infection in miniature lab-grown brains or other organoids isn't the same as effectively preventing or treating infection in an actual human, it's certainly a small step that will help us find our way to that larger goal.Organoids earned their stripes during the COVID-19 pandemic and will be on the front lines of medical treatment research for years to come.Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Organoids: Lab-Grown Organs in the Fight Against COVID-19

Age reversal is possible in mice — old mice can be made young again, regaining everything from muscle mass to eyesight. But can the hands of time be turned back for humans? If so, when will age reversal be possible? Let's dig into the possibilities.
Why Do We Age?
Age comes for us all. It's a constant companion — in younger years, it's celebrated with cakes and parties; in adult life, a marker of milestones; and as we pass the half-century mark, it comes with a realization that more than half our lives are over.
Despite the fact that no amount of money, time or appeals to an unblinking universe can change our inevitable outcome, there's no universal theory of aging. As noted by Science World, there are two broad categories for possible aging mechanisms: programmed and damaged.
In a programmed model, our cells have a kind of planned obsolescence. Given enough time, our cells' behavior begins to degrade, reducing our bodies' ability to create new, healthy cells and affecting their ability to recognize cellular invaders.
In the case of new cell creation, telomere shortening is one potential culprit. Telomeres are located at the very end of chromosome strands and are made up of DNA we don't use. This extra DNA is a good thing, given that cell copying isn't perfect. Instead, it snips off a bit of the chromosome each time. These telomeres take the hit, but eventually, there's no more telomere left, and useful DNA starts getting cut.
Damage-related models of aging include the impact of things like UV damage from prolonged sunlight exposure and the presence of free radicals. These reactive cells are missing an electron and will steal any they can get their hands on, in turn damaging healthy cells.
Epigenetics: The Reversed Aging Breakthrough
Work from Harvard Medical School has shown that it's possible to reverse aging in mice. This age reversal technology is predicated on what professor of genetics and senior study author David Sinclair calls "the information theory of aging."
Under this framework, it's not damage or programming that causes the issue of aging. Instead, it's the loss of a cell's ability to read its original DNA. Sinclair compares it to a computer that develops corrupted software, which impairs its ability to function. If the software can be repaired, so can the damage of aging, theoretically.
The Harvard work centers on epigenomes, which are combinations of chemical compounds that tell genomes what to do, when to do it and where it should be done. In other words, these epigenomes are the software to DNA hardware. Sinclair and his team discovered it was possible to hit a "reset" switch on these epigenomes that made it possible for aging cells to correctly read their genome, in turn restoring their function.
In mice, this meant cells going back to between 50% and 75% of their original age, at which point they didn't get any younger. The Harvard team also showed it was possible to de-age mice more than once, suggesting the potential for significantly longer lifespans.
How Long Until Age Reversal Technology Is Real?
This isn't an easy question to answer. In theory, all the pieces are there, but making the move from speculation to sending us back in time is no simple task.
Part of the challenge is safety. While mice make decent human analogs, the ethical rules governing human testing differ significantly from that of our rodent counterparts. Human trials for any new treatment typically take years to complete as scientists start with small groups and work their way up to larger population segments as procedures are proven safe and effective.
The other issue? While Sinclair notes that it's now possible to flip the switch and turn on anti-aging software in mice, research hasn't yet identified what exactly this software is, how it works or where to find it.
This leaves us with both good and bad news. The good news is scientists have confirmed through multiple studies that age reversal is possible — and should be possible across species. The bad news is we haven't pinpointed the mechanism that controls this process — and it may look different in every species.
When will age reversal be possible? It's a matter of decades rather than years.
Putting the Brakes On
Right now, there's no going back: We grow up, we get old and we eventually die. But there are ways to slow the process. Common examples include getting more rest, getting more exercise and reducing our stress — all easier said than done.
New studies also show the potential of alternative options. In the "not exactly easy" category is a 25% reduction in calories consumed. As noted by Time, participants in the CALERIE trial who reduced their consumption by 25% for two years saw a 2% to 3% slowdown in aging. Unfortunately, this level of restriction is difficult to maintain and has been linked to changes in brain function.
A study out of Norway, meanwhile, suggests that the consumption of krill oil could help flatten the aging curve. So far, the process has only been tested with roundworms, but there are already studies showing the health benefits of krill oil in humans, and it's possible that slower aging could be a nice side effect.
Ultimately, aging reversed in mice doesn't necessarily mean the same thing for humans. It's a solid start — one that could form the basis for new human software code capable of rebooting our DNA and giving us another shot at life. For the moment, though, maybe consider going to bed an hour earlier and getting a little more exercise.
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Mice to Meet You: When Will Age Reversal Be Possible?

Brain surgery, often a high-impact feature in medical dramas where the neurosurgeon performs heroic work as the patient sits awake and semi-oblivious, is actually nothing new. For example, archaeologists found evidence of routine treatments, such as trepanation and craniotomy, in Inca skulls from around 1,000 years ago. Smithsonian Magazine describes how skull evidence shows that the surgery was successful and patients lived for years afterward, albeit with gaping holes in their heads. Luckily, surgery has progressed since the days of gaping holes. Today's brain surgery includes repair, where neurosurgeons cover the defect made in the skull for surgical access. Surgical advances have also introduced techniques that allow access to the brain without removing bone, such as catheter ablation for treating aneurysms and removing blood clots. And as neurosurgery advances, so does our understanding of the brain itself. Craniotomy — Letting a Little Light Inside Your brain is extremely well protected. To gain access to such a delicate organ, neurosurgeons traditionally had to drill through the bony skull and remove part of it to create a window into what lay beneath. A craniotomy gave enough room to maneuver and directly exposed any lesions during brain surgery. Advances in intraoperative imaging, such as the fluorescent protein labeling that Stanford Medicine's Scope describes for outlining tumor boundaries, help define safe surgical margins for improved patient outcomes. Perhaps surprising to some, not all brain surgery needs an anesthetic. An awake craniotomy, as described by Mayo Clinic, allows neurosurgeons to check in with the patient during the procedure. This is extremely valuable for surgeries such as tumor removal to make sure that vital structures involved with speech, movement and so on are not damaged. Surgery Without Surgery Advances in brain surgery mean that certain conditions may no longer require a craniotomy for treatment. In a nod to ancient Egyptian mummification practices, neurosurgeons can now remove some brain tumors through the back of the nose. The UT Southwestern Medical Center describes how access via the nose is much better for certain regions of the brain, such as the pituitary gland. Slender instruments and endoscopic techniques mean minimally invasive procedures with less destruction to surrounding tissues. Even less invasive are catheters: A neurosurgeon can thread a thin wire or tube up from the groin, navigating through the abdominal aorta directly into arteries in the brain. Catheter surgery has been used for thrombectomy — when a blood clot causes a stroke or ischemic incident within the brain. Without clot removal, the reduced blood flow to tissue causes damage. However, with a catheter surgeons can identify the area and remove the clot. Neurosurgeons also use catheters for repairing aneurysms. These are weakened areas in the blood vessel wall that can rupture without warning; most are fatal. A new catheter design that uses biomimicry to increase functionality might give better results. ScienceDaily describes how researchers designed a soft, steerable catheter tip that mimics the tiny flagella that bacteria use to swim. This new design should give better access to the narrow and delicate areas around the aneurysm, allowing surgeons to place platinum coils that block off the damage. Jump-Start for Brains Sometimes it's not surgery that's needed. John Hopkins Medicine describes how installing a device similar to a pacemaker can help patients with Parkinson's disease take control of debilitating tremors. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) operates from electrode wire implants that connect to a targeted circuit-based neuromodulator. Once activated, the system monitors electrical activity in the brain and fine-tunes itself to send pulses that damp down tremors that interfere with quality of life. DBS is now the standard of care for some patients with Parkinson's. Patient HM and the Most Famous Brain in Medical History Brain surgery has often revealed hidden information from inside the skull. The most famous case is possibly patient HM, who underwent surgery for epilepsy in 1953. Smithsonian Magazine notes that while the fist-sized chunk of brain removed by neurosurgeons helped abolish seizures, HM was left with severe memory issues. The areas removed and/or damaged stopped him from forming short-term memories. Studying the anatomy of these areas — and, upon his death, of the entirety of his brain — has given neuroscience valuable insight into how the brain works. Surgical removal of brain tissue is still a method used for treating intractable epilepsy; with imaging techniques, though, it's easier to avoid such severe postoperative dysfunction. Additionally, the removed tissue is often valuable to research. The BBC describes that scientists have around 48 hours post-removal to study these samples for vital information on how brain tissue behaves. Another key area of research uses brain cells in culture. ScienceDaily reports that brain organoids, tiny clusters of the different cells that make up brain tissue, are grown artificially in the lab. Not only do they replicate brain architecture in miniature, which is valuable for studying the effects of drugs on cell function, but they create brain waves. Does this mean that the "brain in a dish" is actually thinking? It's hard to say. These surgical advancements are exciting and critical to our understanding of the human brain and to improving patient health outcomes. As science and technology progress, it will be fascinating to unearth even more discoveries about how the brain functions. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Inside Your Head: Brain Surgery and the Neurosurgeon

When a new zombie virus discovered due to permafrost melting made its way into headlines in March 2023, it caused concern. Some wondered if this meant we were on the brink of another worldwide health crisis. Here's a look at what researchers have brought back from the (near) dead, and how this undead infection could relate to public health.
What Is a Zombie Virus?
A zombie virus is a virus frozen in time. They're often caught up in permafrost after hitching a ride in the immune system of a long-deceased animal or insect. If these viruses are thawed out and introduced into a suitable host, however, they can effectively resurrect and get back to doing what they do best: infecting organisms.
According to Scientific American, zombie virus genomes could play a positive role in disease treatment. These genomes are byproducts of viral infections that are no longer capable of reproducing on their own. If they're introduced to cells compromised by other infections, they can hijack existing viruses and use them to replicate, in effect reducing the overall viral load. In healthy cells, meanwhile, these zombies have no effect. While research on zombie virus benefits remains in the early stages, the work suggests that not all zombies are out for brains.
Playing the Long Game: A Virus Threat 48,500 Years in the Making
How long can a virus survive and then be brought back to life in melting permafrost? If you said 50,000 years, you were just 1,500 years off the mark.
This is because permafrost offers the ideal environment to keep viruses in stasis. Not only is the temperature cold, but it's also oxygen-free and doesn't let in light. In other words, the energy sources needed to help the virus replicate — or kill it completely — are absent in permafrost.
As climate change drives rising temperatures, however, the top layers of permafrost are beginning to melt. This has made it possible for researchers like Jean-Michel Claverie, Emeritus professor of genomics at the School of Medicine of Aix-Marseille University, to obtain and revive virus samples that are tens of thousands of years old. Most recently, he discovered five new families of viruses in samples ranging from 48,500 years old and found in the soil of an underground lake to those discovered in a 27,000-year-old wooly mammoth's stomach contents and coat.
The biggest threat posed by these viruses? A lack of natural human immunity. Since we've never encountered these viruses, our immune systems have no natural defense against their infection vectors. As a result, it's possible that these old issues could become modern problems. This isn't without precedent: Consider the impact of the European colonization of the Americas, which led to massive outbreaks of diseases, such as smallpox and influenza.
Is Permafrost Melting a Public Health Risk?
Yes and no. So far, the viruses reanimated by scientists are only capable of infecting amoebas. While it's possible that less-permanent permafrost could bring human- and animal-infecting viruses back to life, Claverie notes that any unearthed microbes would be "quick to decay once they're exposed to heat, UV light and oxygen." Claverie also points out that, while humans might lack the inherent ability to combat zombie infections, the chance of infection itself is "extremely low" because these viruses have never encountered a modern human immune system.
While the chances of a zombie virus going viral are slim, however, they're never zero. Increasing temperatures mean that more permafrost is melting more quickly, which means that more zombie viruses are getting a second shot. As the COVID-19 pandemic made perfectly clear, it doesn't take much for a new virus to spread once it successfully infects an immune system that lacks effective defenses.
In short, while the new zombie virus discovered doesn't spell disaster for humankind, it does speak to the second-order effects of climate change. If we're not careful, crop and coastline loss could be the precursors to an unopposed, undead viral vector.
 
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Grave Concerns: New Zombie Virus Discovered Due to Permafrost Melting

More than 560 specially trained astronauts have flown into space since 1961. Before traveling, all were closely monitored and pushed to physical fitness by an elite crew of physicians trained in space medicine. But as billions of dollars pour into space tourism and other extraterrestrial endeavors, hundreds, if not thousands, of space travelers of various ages and physical conditions will enter the frontier above Earth's atmosphere. The strong gravitational forces of a rocket launch followed by microgravity, cosmic radiation, isolation and other environmental factors could give rise to new medical conditions or exacerbate existing ones. General physicians who have never treated an astronaut may suddenly find themselves with patients that have ventured into the cosmos. Not only will doctors need to adopt methods from the field of space medicine — but space medicine may also need to adapt its approach to accommodate less-than-perfect specimens of physical fitness. In a pioneering academic paper published recently in the New England Journal of Medicine, Jan Stepanek, a physician at the Mayo Clinic, and two other space medicine experts jump-start the conversation around these notions. They summarize for practicing clinicians the expected challenges an average person may face during different kinds of spaceflight, from brief suborbital flights to long-duration missions. In doing so, the scientists shed light on medical issues that doctors who have never met an astronaut may soon face as space tourism takes off. Short-Duration Suborbital Journeys The most affordable journeys (a few hundred thousand dollars) will likely consist of quick rocket rides that last about 10 minutes, according to Ars Technica. Zooming higher than almost any civilian has ever traveled, but much lower than the orbital realm where satellites fly, passengers will certainly feel like astronauts. Stepanek and his colleagues say that tourists on these brief flights can expect to hear incredibly loud noises and feel anxiety, motion sickness, vibrations, the g-forces of launch and a brief period of weightlessness. How those conditions affect individuals will vary. But based on data collected from parabolic airplane flights that simulate microgravity and three studies conducted by the Federal Aviation Administration, travelers should do well. In the FAA study, most participants, who ranged in age from 19 to 89, were able to tolerate centrifugal forces similar to those in suborbital flight. Long-term medical challenges should be minimal, the scientists say. Rocket Rides Lasting Up to Two Days Some space tourism companies, including Space Adventures, are advertising slightly longer trips, such as a trip around the moon. Travelers embarking on these sojourns can expect to hear and feel some of the same things as those taking short-duration rides, Stepanek and his team note — with one exception: Tourists will be in microgravity longer and may feel some more intense discomfort as fluid in the body adjusts. They can expect to feel headaches, congestion and pain in the lower back as their spine elongates. Long-term medical challenges should be minimal, but doctors may want to pay special attention to issues related to a patient's heart, lungs and spine, reports Space.com. These are issues that Earthbound doctors wouldn't typically worry about first. Sojourns for Two Days to 12 Months As space becomes a destination, accommodations will follow. Several space tourism groups are touting multi-day and even multi-week trips to the International Space Station or the moon, according to Popular Science. After just two days in space, though, things start to become more challenging. Space medicine experts state that prolonged weightlessness can adversely affect the cardiovascular and nervous systems, causing problems such as an increase in resting heart rate and a decrease in physical capability. The longer a space tourist remains beyond the protective layer of Earth's atmosphere, the higher the risk of problems from radiation. Scientists studying astronauts that have spent time in space have seen alterations in the function of immune cells — called T-cells, changes in the skin's microbiome, and susceptibility to virulent bacteria, Stepanek and his colleagues write. Anyone with preexisting medical conditions or a compromised immune system should be wary of long-term spaceflights. How Medicine Can Adapt As tourists embark on the frontiers of space, Earthbound medicine will need to adapt. Most of the astronauts that have traveled into space have been physically fit, healthy men, which means that the medical data accounting for the effects of space on women or on people of varying ages is lacking. Collecting medical information as soon as possible could reduce uncertainty and help doctors better recognize and treat problems that may crop up. But who will do it? Currently, space tourism companies are not required by law to only accept passengers that meet certain health criteria. And it's unlikely that commercial spaceflight vehicles will carry medical resources or people with medical skills, the medical experts say. Even today, medical support onboard the International Space Station comes over the radio from medical teams on the ground. Should a future space tourism hotel require medical supplies or equipment, it would take days or weeks to transport them via resupply rockets. For space tourists that venture beyond Earth, scientists say that preparation and training will be key — especially for longer duration flights. They suggest a strong collaboration among future spaceflight participants, the clinicians who care for them, and the industry operators to ensure safety and the ability to respond to emergencies. Space is within our grasp. Moving toward it will transform medicine as much as space travel will transform humanity.

How Space Tourism Will Push Space Medicine to New Heights

In the United States, annual healthcare waste — from failure of care delivery to overtreatment — ranged from $760 to $935 billion, according to the Journal of the American Medical Association. But wearable healthcare technology is poised to overturn these trends. New laws that allow doctors to embrace innovations in wearable diagnostic and assistive devices could help usher in a new era precision medicine that reduces medical costs and saves thousands of lives. "Studies have shown that folks using these types of devices are more engaged in their own health than those that are aren't," says Michael Wittman, program manager at Northrop Grumman Information Systems in McLean, Virginia. Fitness Trackers Grow Up  Today's wearable healthcare technology has its origins in old-school pedometers that could count the number of steps a person took each day. Activity trackers began to crop up in the late 2000s, like wristbands that wirelessly connected to a smartphone app. In addition to tracking steps, most of these consumer devices were capable of sensing heart rate, sleep patterns and flights of stairs climbed. The data they collected was informative, but it wasn't detailed enough to feed a medical diagnosis. Things started to shake up in 2018. Apple introduced its Series 4 Watch, which had the ability to take an FDA-approved electrocardiogram (ECG) and share it with a doctor. The medical diagnosis door was cracking open for wearable healthcare technology, but one detail stuck. Even if a doctor could receive medical-quality data, they weren't able to bill an insurance company for any service related to it. The situation would be similar to a doctor making a medical recommendation based on the result of an MRI, but not being able to bill for it. The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) saw the problem and enacted changes in January 2019, says Pete Ianace, senior vice president of corporate development at VitalTech in Dallas, Texas. They released a handful of insurance codes doctors could use to bill Medicare for services tied to wearable diagnostic and assistive devices. For instance, says Ianace, if a doctor writes a prescription for a Medicare advantage patient to wear a health monitoring band, Medicare will pay the doctor $65/month for as long as the patient wears the device. If the doctor or a nurse in that office spends 20 minutes per month reading the data, the doctor can bill $54. If the patient sends a photograph of, for instance, a rash that could be a side effect of medication, the doctor can bill $13. The list goes on because starting in January 2020, CMS is adding more codes. "The doctor today who is burned out now has the ability to do remote care, from telehealth to remote monitoring, and essentially add a million dollars of revenue per year to a single practice — and, by the way, end up with better patient health outcomes," says Ianace. Precision Medicine in the Making Wearable medical devices being developed not only track activity, including heart rate, steps and calories burned but also have sensors that pick up vital signs, such as respiration rate, blood-oxygen levels and irregular heartbeats. At-risk patients, such as elderly people with diabetes, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and heart irregularities have a lot to gain from these wearables. A medical-quality gadget can be programmed with a patient's baseline biometrics as well as their prescription regime and send regular updates to a doctor automatically. If a patient's usual activity or biometric indicators move outside normal ranges, the system can send an alert to a phone app owned by the patient or to a family member. Healthcare technology advances will improve disease treatment and prevention by taking into consideration an individual's medical history, environment and lifestyle. If a person with diabetes has a blood-sugar level that gets too high, for instance, a medical device can issue a warning that they need to adjust their medication. If air quality is poor on a hot summer day, the device could warn a patient with asthma to take precautions or stay inside. Healthcare wearables can remind people to take specific medication at specific times, detect falls and serve as panic alerts that connect users to immediate assistance. In response to the potential of wearable healthcare technology, the market is exploding. According to Wareable, market analysts from Gartner have estimated that spending on wearable products, including smartwatches, will rise from $41 billion in 2019 to $52 billion in 2020. That trend is already underway. At the end of October 2019, Optum, a division of the insurance giant United Healthcare, acquired Vivify Health, a patient-monitoring platform, reported CNBC. And just a few short days later, Google announced that it had purchased Fitbit, the health fitness wearable. Use With Caution As with any emerging field, especially one that impacts the health and well-being of a patient, there will be challenges. In an essay published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, physicians from Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and the Massachusetts General Hospital offer a word of caution about healthcare technology advances with wearable devices. In a summary provided by the American Medical Association, the study's authors write that although insurance companies have begun to reward policy holders for healthier activity, calorie intake, blood pressure and weight tracked by wearable devices, these companies could begin to penalize less healthy people with higher premiums because there are no regulations to stop them. The physicians also warn that inaccurate data collection could unintentionally result in penalties or harmful treatment. For instance, if a device records activity levels much lower than the person produced, the numbers could reduce insurance premium rewards. Or, if a device yields false-positive readings, doctors could potentially recommend treatments that are harmful. They also point that patients who cannot afford wearable devices and who aren't covered by Medicare may not be able to participate in incentive programs. They would miss out on insurance rewards, and more importantly, health benefits that the technology offers. Lastly, the physicians write that the data from digital health devices could be intercepted by third parties and used in inappropriate ways. Data collected by a wearable device is not protected by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, the physicians said. Wittman says that in order to increase adoption and to be able to use the technology from a clinical standpoint, tech companies have to make devices that produce medically relevant data. Strong guidance from the FDA can help make medical wearables reliable and accurate. But it may simply take some time. "I think you're going to see more and more devices approved for home use as the technology matures," says Wittman.

Advancing Precision Medicine With Wearable Healthcare Technology

In behavioral science, predictive analytics has great potential to help us anticipate the decisions people will make in the future. Data mining, statistical algorithms, machine learning and artificial intelligence can all be used to develop models that suggest future trends and behavior patterns among segments of the population — including those with increased tendencies to attempt suicide.While data analytics are commonly used by companies to predict consumer behavior (e.g., how likely a person is to buy a product or repay a loan), they can also be used by mental health professionals. Ultimately, being able to predict human behavior could mean the difference between life and death. This is why behavioral scientists at agencies such as the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and the Department of Defense (DoD) are starting to use predictive analytics as an essential tool for suicide prevention efforts.What Is Predictive Analytics?Predictive analytics is a technique that uses big data to forecast the future. Today, there is so much data available, it can seem overwhelming at first. But with powerful computing and advanced algorithms, interesting patterns emerge. Thomas H. Davenport, an expert in predictive analytics, wrote in the Harvard Business Review, "All we have to do is gather the right data, do the right type of statistical model, and be careful of our assumptions."While an algorithm could never replace certain human traits, such as empathy, data models can help health care providers and agencies deploy their limited resources as effectively as possible. In particular, predictive analytics can identify the highest-risk cases for suicide so that every effort is made to save those lives before it is too late.Suicide Prevention EffortsIn 2015, the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) published a study that evaluated whether predictive modeling could be used to identify patients at risk for suicide so that the highest-risk veterans could receive early intervention. The researchers used data mining techniques typically applied to consumer research for marketing and sales support. However, this time they analyzed VHA clinical records to identify groups of veterans who are at the highest risk to take their own lives. In the paper, the authors concluded, "Predictive modeling can identify high-risk patients who were not identified on clinical grounds."The researchers used data already available through the VA's electronic health records collected as part of ongoing patient—provider encounters. The records include information, such as demographics, diagnoses and medications, and services received, such as inpatient mental health hospitalizations. All of this data can indicate a certain risk level for suicide.The lead author of the paper, Dr. John F. McCarthy, Director for Serious Mental Illness Treatment Resource and Evaluation Center at the VA's Office of Mental Health Operations, tells us, "This work didn't involve anything extra for providers or patients. It took advantage of data that are collected on an ongoing basis, as part of delivering healthcare."Dr. Ira R. Katz, Senior Consultant for Mental Health Program Evaluation at the VA's Office of Mental Health Operations, and one of the coauthors of the study, adds, "There's nothing new about the risk factors that go into the model — mental health conditions, pain, chronic disease, hospitalizations, specific medications — they can each define risk." Ultimately, he says, the model helps providers interpret the information in the health records.The U.S. Army has a similar initiative, with its ongoing Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers (STARRS). In this study, researchers compiled existing data from 37 different army and DoD sources, which adds up to more than 1.1 billion records representing more than 1.6 million soldiers. They also included information about duration of service (for example, how many months a soldier was deployed in Afghanistan), and new data from questionnaires, neurocognitive tests and biomarkers that were identified from blood samples.Outlook for the FutureBy analyzing massive amounts of data, researchers are not only able to identify which patients were at the highest risk for suicide but they can even pinpoint when the risk is highest (within 26 weeks of being seen as an outpatient by mental health specialists, according to STARRS). According to the VA Suicide Prevention Program, "Veterans in the top 0.1 percent of risk (who have a 43-fold increased risk of death from suicide within a month) are identified before clinical signs of suicide are evident in order to save lives before a crisis occurs." These highest-risk veterans then receive an especially high level of care, including additional follow-up visits and individualized care plans.Predictive analytics could be used by any group looking to aid suicide prevention efforts, but military groups are especially well-suited for the task. Not only do they have access to sufficiently large amounts of data but taking care of soldiers and veterans is an especially urgent task. According to the latest report from the VA, the risk for suicide is 21 percent higher among veterans when compared with civilians.Certainly, when it comes to such a deeply personal issue, the human factor will never be eliminated. However, just as automation has led to a revolution in manufacturing, it can also help mental health professionals accomplish more with their existing resources. Predictive analytics is an exciting new tool in behavioral science. This technique could save many lives by helping health care providers better understand trends in human behavior.Predictive analytics can already help health care providers identify patients who are at high risk for suicide, and the more that the models are used, the better they will become. While a relative newcomer in the broad spectrum of health care, it is developing rapidly.As Dr. Katz explains, "Moving forward, we intend to see how adding additional information from specific tests, from providers' observations, etc. — can add to the predictive value of the model, so at the same time we're using it to enhance care, we're also using care to enhance the model."

How Behavioral Science Experts Use Predictive Analytics for Suicide Prevention

 When you first learned about DNA, you likely saw images of the beautiful double helix structure in your textbook — but you probably haven't heard about the woman who initially discovered that structure, and it's time for her to get her dues.Early Years English native Rosalind Franklin decided to become a scientist when she was 15. This was an uncommon decision for a young woman in 1930s London, and her father was against higher education for women entirely: He wanted Rosalind to become a social worker, not a scientist. But she would not be dissuaded. In 1941, Rosalind Franklin graduated from Newnham College, Cambridge, with a degree in science. For several years after graduation, Franklin worked at the British Coal Utilization Research Association on a graduate fellowship, where she contributed to important research on coal and graphite, and earned her Ph.D. Then she moved on to the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de L'Etat, run by Jacques Mering, where she did her post-doctoral research and became an expert in X-ray crystallography. Eventually, Franklin moved back to London to work in John Randall's lab at King's College in London, where she met Maurice Wilkins. And although she and Wilkins were colleagues, he initially misunderstood her role and thought she was a technical assistant, which set the tone for the rest of their relationship. This assumption was common at the college, where only males were allowed in the university dining room, and all the men hung out at a men-only pub after work.Photo 51 Rosalind Franklin, for her part, was not dissuaded by this blatantly gendered behavior. She continued to work hard in Randall's lab, focusing on the X-ray diffraction studies that would eventually facilitate the double helix theory of DNA. One of Franklin's X-ray photographs, nicknamed Photo 51, spurred new thinking about the shape of DNA for the men in the lab, and that research was ultimately published under Wilkins' name in the journal Nature with little-to-no mention of Franklin. She ultimately left the lab after two years due to disagreements with her lab director, Randall, and Wilkins. Rosalind Franklin died of ovarian cancer in 1958 at age 37. She spent her final years working on research concerning the molecular structure of viruses, for which her team member, Aaron Klug, would eventually win a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1982. Four years after her death in 1962, Wilkins and two of his colleagues won the Nobel Prize for their discovery of the double-helix model of DNA, based on a photo taken by Franklin. Franklin's relentless research and courage weren't mentioned because the Nobel Committee doesn't make posthumous nominations, although that decision was highly contentious. While times have changed, the value of unflappable tenacity has not. Northrop Grumman is looking for innovators like Franklin who believe in breaking boundaries — people who want to tackle problems that society says can't be solved. If this sounds like you, check out their careers page.

Rosalind Franklin's Discovery is in Everyone's DNA

It's called electric muscle stimulation, or neuromuscular electrical stimulation, and in the last year has shocked its way into the top fitness trends. As noted by Women's Health, celebrities across the globe are now using EMS to supplement existing workouts — trainers charging $100 or more per 20-minute session, promising everything from higher calorie burns to bigger muscle gains. What's the real story here? How does EMS work? How does it affect muscles during workouts? Does it have other applications? Most importantly, does this electro-excercise trend actually deliver results? Wired Up: How EMS Works The hype of EMS calls to mind late-night infomercials featuring "ab belts" and "muscle shakers" that promised to dramatically boost muscle mass or burn fat while users did ... absolutely nothing. Prompted by a 2002 study that found many commercial products were both uncomfortable and poorly built, the Federal Trade Commission removed several neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) products from the market. Now, the technology is back in vogue again with celebrity endorsements and seemingly better results. So, what's the deal? The science is fairly simple — users wear conductive suits comprised of small pads connected to a power-supplying console. Next, they complete basic exercises such as sit-ups, lunges and squats while the pads stimulate specific muscle groups, forcing them to contract. As noted by Men's Journal, different movements cause different muscle fibers to engage. For example, slow-twitch muscle fibers come into play for push-ups, while fast-twitch fibers are used for heavy bench presses. EMS engages both sets of fibers at the same time to boost exercise impact and tire muscles more quickly. Natural Reactions According to a NCBI study, users did see improvement to their abdominal muscles after using EMS; participants reported feeling more "toned" and "firmed" and average waist circumference decreased by 3.5 centimeters. The data supports the assertion that electric muscle stimulation is doing what it claims. But what does that feel like for users? First-hand accounts of authors and athletes trying EMS typically land on the same word: weird. The sensation feels like a buzzing or vibrating in targeted muscles, one that ramps up to moderate pain as the workout progresses. Despite the water-soaked equipment — which helps conduct electricity — and copious amounts of sweat, there's no "shocking" involved here, just a strange sensation of muscles compelled to contract on their own followed by significant fatigue. According to Men's Journal, however, the gains made by EMS may not translate directly into better performance — machine-built muscles still need training to activate when under stress. Use Cases: Training and Therapy With celebrity backing and scientific evidence, EMS-specific gyms are quickly gaining ground. But it's a mixed bag. While one study from Korea found that 20-25 year-old students completing a six-week course of EMS reported less anxiety and fatigue, Business Insider notes that at least one pad malfunction sent a user to the hospital with muscle breakdown. While this isn't a likely outcome given the relatively low-power stimulation used, EMS technology is unregulated, meaning there are no hard-and-fast standards around safety or current levels. Another potential use for EMS is therapy. There's a longer history here with better results, while new techniques like transcranial magnetic stimulation offer potential benefits for cognitive function and mood adjustment. As noted by Science Direct, NMES "enhances muscle activation in weak or poorly innervated muscle groups, primarily used for patients with spinal cord injuries and cerebral palsy." A 2012 study found that EMS offered a way to preserve muscle strength in critically ill patients. Current Outlook So what's the bottom line for EMS technology? Unlike some other fitness trends, the science is there. Mild electric pulses can force unused muscle groups to contract and help increase total mass. For users, the feeling is typically odd but not awful, although concerns remain around standardization and rigor. Therapeutic use, meanwhile, is more well-established thanks to physician oversight and the use of EMS devices to target specific outcomes rather than calorie burn or generalized strength training. Nonetheless, a 2016 study found muscle gains using EMS comparable to traditional high-intensity workouts, even though significantly less time investment was required by users. Currently, EMS remains a technology bounded by practice and price — emerging standards and lowering costs, however, will spark the electro-workout market.

Popular Fitness Trends: The Resurgence of Electric Muscle Stimulation

It can take 10 years and cost pharmaceutical research labs more than $2 billion to develop, trial and receive federal approval for a new drug, according to the Tufts Center for the Study of Drug Development. In times of crisis, however, humanity can't wait.  Drug repurposing of existing compounds for new medicinal uses could shorten drug discovery timelines. By using artificial intelligence to sift through the multitudes of compounds and their known treatments, researchers could piece together new therapies that save lives.  A Compelling Case  Perhaps the most famous story of drug repurposing comes from the pharmaceutical company Pfizer. In the 1990s, they developed sildenafil, a compound to treat high blood pressure and chest pain due to heart disease. During clinical trials, researchers discovered that the drug was better at inducing erections than treating heart problems, reports Quartz. The little blue pill Viagra was born.  Other lesser known drugs originally developed to treat one ailment were also repurposed for something else. The National Center for Biotechnology Information reports that bupropion, originally used for depression, helped people stop smoking and thalidomide, used to morning sickness, is now used for multiple myeloma.    Harnessing AI Tools  Artificial intelligence algorithms are being used to speed up that search. A range of companies from better known Google and IBM to startups like Insilico Medicine, Recursion Pharmaceuticals, BenevolentAI and Pharnext are harnessing the tools of AI to scrutinize existing drugs as well as anonymous patient data to find patterns that may point to new therapies, reports Fortune. Researchers use AI in a number of different ways for drug repurposing. Algorithms can be trained to read through troves of published research papers to sort through high-resolution medical images, analyze genomic profiles, screen massive chemical libraries, and search the genetic profiles of cells and patient information, for example. The analysis may explore specific interactions between drug molecules and cells to zero in on potential compounds that could show promise for a new disease.  Pharnext, for instance, used AI to dig through millions of records and find three existing drugs — baclofen, a muscle relaxant; naltrexone, used to treat opioid dependence; and sorbitol, a glucose-based laxative — to develop a drug treatment for a rare neurodegenerative condition called Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT). Because the three drugs were already in use, Pharnext was able skip the Phase I trials that the Food and Drug Administration normally requires to evaluate a drug's safety and toxicity at different dose levels, according to Fortune. Using the same technique, the company is now trialing a drug for Alzheimer's and another for amyotrophic lateral sclerosisâ€Ž, or ALS.  Progress Continues  Using AI-based drug repurposing has the potential to shave time and money off drug discovery efforts. But progress is still in the early stages. Even if drug candidates can skip Phase I trials, they still need to pass through Phases II through IV. Few new AI-based drug candidates have made it that far, according to Nature. If the FDA's process for testing and approval could be streamlined, that could change, but overhauling a federal regulatory system takes time and truly speedy drug development is likely years away. At the very least, AI can improve the quality of the data fed into drug discovery models, show where information is lacking and help researchers focus their efforts. Humans, for now, remain on the front lines, racing against the clock to produce therapies that can save lives. 

AI-Based Drug Repurposing Could Offer New Lifesaving Medicine

A challenge in biomedical research is determining what will happen when a human is exposed to a new disease without conducting unnecessary experiments on humans. Lab-grown organs could be the answer. Traditionally, researchers have studied laboratory organisms including bacteria, yeast, microscopic worms, fruit flies, frogs, fish and mice, as well as cells in Petri dishes. More than a century of intensive research has led to an extraordinarily detailed understanding of many biological processes, such as how DNA controls the behavior of roughly 200 different cell types in vertebrate animals. This work has recently led to the development of an extraordinary new tool: miniature lab-grown organs, called organoids. These lab-grown organs can be derived from human cells, and are providing incredible insight into how healthy organs function, and how diseases such as cancer and infections progress. They also provide a safe and relatively inexpensive way to identify effective drugs for general use, or for individual patients. What Are Organoids? An organoid is a 3D cluster of cells—typically less than a centimeter wide—in which the cells have been coaxed to organize as a group and develop into many of the cell types that are present in a mature organ. Thus far, scientists have successfully grown miniature brains, retinas, lungs, blood vessels, mammary glands, livers, kidneys, pancreases, stomachs, intestines, fallopian tubes, bladders and prostates, according to Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. Hundreds or thousands of organoids can be produced at one time for large-scale studies. The process starts with stem cells, which have the potential to grow into many or all of the different cell types in the body. In 1998, the first human stem cells were generated from 5-day-old human embryos, which raised significant ethical concerns. These issues were largely circumvented in 2007 when techniques were developed to produce stem cells from adult skin cells. Skin cells from any human donor—such as a patient in need of specialized therapy—can be collected and forced to revert to an embryonic state. This can be achieved through the expression of just four specific genes, as an article in Nature explains. It's the equivalent of restoring a smartphone to factory settings. Biopsies from specific organs can also collect naturally occurring stem cells that can develop into a small number of cell types for that organ (e.g. lung, liver, stomach, intestine). By definition, all stem cells can divide indefinitely without losing their potential and can be frozen for future research. Decades of research into embryonic development, genetics and cell biology are providing the tools that scientists need to coax these stem cells to become miniature lab-grown organs. For each organ type, researchers need to find the right combination of signaling molecules and growth conditions—delivered at the right time and in the right order—to get the necessary cell types in the proper proportions and appropriate positions. This is arduous work, but it is aided by the natural inclination of cell groups to self-organize as they develop. Once a successful strategy is developed, that new organoid can be added to the scientific toolkit. What Are Organoids Useful For? Mice have been extraordinarily useful as laboratory organisms, but they do have significant limitations:   Their brains are not as complex as human brains.  They don't suffer from the same infectious diseases as humans.  They are too expensive for large-scale experiments.  Researchers are using organoids to help fill these gaps. For example, the virus that causes COVID-19 does not infect mice, but it does infect human organoids. A news feature published by Nature describes how the appropriate organoids were used to understand how COVID-19 affects the lungs, liver, kidneys and brain. The safety and efficacy of COVID vaccines were also evaluated in organoids. In another example, after testing ~1000 drugs on mini colons and mini lungs infected with COVID-19, scientists were able to select seven drugs for further study. Brain organoids were used to better understand Zika virus, which can cause microcephaly (an unusually small head) in babies born from infected mothers. Brain organoids were used to understand how the virus increases cell death in developing neurons and to identify chemical compounds that could reduce that effect. Brain organoids are also being used to better understand neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease that is caused by mutations in the gene for a chloride channel, which is required for healthy lung function. Nearly 2,000 different mutations have been reported for cystic fibrosis. Different drugs have been developed, which work in different ways. Lung organoids can be used to test the effectiveness of each drug for each mutation. Organoids have already made significant contributions to biomedical research and are quickly becoming a highly effective tool. Looking Ahead Scientists are working to make these miniature lab-grown organs even more similar to regular organs. They need to find a way to effectively incorporate immune cells and blood vessels, provide structural support with an extracellular matrix and connect different organoids (e.g. pancreas and intestines, or multiple brain regions) in a way that is functionally relevant. Research in mice has already shown that liver organoids can work as functional livers when transplanted into mutant mice. This research may eventually contribute to lab-grown organs for human transplant patients. The possibilities seem endless. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Miniature Lab-Grown Organs: A New Tool for Biomedical Research

According to a report from the World Health Organization, fraudulent medicine is a $30 billion global industry, and up to 10 percent of all drugs in developing countries could be counterfeit. Luckily, new medical technology is being developed to increase transparency and thwart the spread of fake medicine. <h2 class="" dir="lDangers of Counterfeit Medicine There are many methods for creating fraudulent medicine. For example, counterfeit medicine could contain the wrong active ingredient, harmful chemicals or an incorrect amount of the correct active ingredient. According to National Public Radio, counterfeiters have sold "antimalarial pills" that were made of just potato and cornstarch. The WHO report states counterfeit drugs can cause sickness and even lead to death. An individual taking fraudulent medicine may not realize the potentially life-saving medicine is not treating their illness or pain, resulting in needless suffering. <h2 class="" dir="lTracking Counterfeit Medicine Fraudulent medicine is incredibly difficult to track down, and the internet makes selling it to unsuspecting consumers easier than ever. Malaria medicines, anesthetics, painkillers and antibiotics were among the most-reported fraudulent products to the WHO between 2013 and 2017. Approximately 1,500 fraudulent products were reported as part of this investigation, according to the WHO. The WHO has created a database that lets individuals report potentially falsified medicine or questionable cases to track them on a global scale. This database helped save lives in South America after experts discovered patients were using a contaminated product that had caused deaths in Asia. The availability of cheap manufacturing technology, and the internet as a global marketplace, make it nearly impossible to prevent the sale of these pills, reports the WHO. Globalization has made it easier to transport goods around the world, but that creates a massive supply chain criminals can exploit. Medicine can be manufactured in one country and shipped to another thousands of miles away. However, these same technological advances are providing new tools to combat the global spread of fraudulent medicine. Fighting Fakes Individuals and local authorities alone can't stop the spread of fake drugs because the problem is global. But technology transcends borders, and databases like the one the WHO created can help authorities access information quickly to assess a situation.  QR codes are another tool in the fight against fake drugs. With the prevalence of smartphones, all it would take for an individual to determine if their medicine is real would be a scan of the QR code on the box. A Ghanaian company developed a scratch-off code and mobile app that can confirm if a drug is real in under 20 seconds, according to Deutsche Welle. The code automates a response that tells customers whether their drugs are real or counterfeit.  Mass serialization is another way manufacturers try to prevent the spread of counterfeit drugs, reports Infosys. Each package contains a unique barcode or radio-frequency identification tag that is scanned and entered into an online database. Later, handheld scanners can quickly match a serial code with authenticated entries. Blockchain technology can be used to bolster security because every action must be verified, thus ensuring the authenticity of each scanned item, according to Forbes. Technology has helped enable the global counterfeit drug industry; now it will help prevent its expansion. New medical technology and data-driven solutions must be developed to better address the global threat of counterfeit medicine.  Find out how smarter health solutions can benefit administrators and the greater public here.

Fighting Counterfeit Medicine Requires New Medical Technology

The baby business is booming: The market for baby products will grow by $4 billion over the next few years. It's easy to understand why — in an age of interconnectedness, people are increasingly turning to health technology to ease the difficult transition of welcoming a newborn into the home.   Technology often creates as many new problems as it solves, and smart baby devices are no exception. From monitors to breast pumps to bottle warmers and sterilizers, these devices can make life easier but can also introduce new challenges. Here's a rundown of the new technology aimed at new and expecting parents, as well as how they can help (and a few forward-looking concerns).   Smart Baby Monitors Ease Minds   Smart baby monitors are changing the way parents care for their infants. Gone are the days of tiny, grainy screens and scratchy audio. Now, baby monitors such as Nanit come with sophisticated apps that allow new and expecting parents to watch and record video, receive real-time notifications about movement or crying, and speak to their infant or play music through a phone.   Some smart devices go even further: Companies such as Owlet and Pico have health technology wearables that allow parents to monitor an infant's sleep and breathing. They'll even notify parents and caregivers if the baby appears to have stopped breathing. Many saw these devices as more trouble than they're worth, especially with their notorious and frequent false alarms.   It's also important to note that these health technology monitors aren't regulated as medical devices. The Owlet Smart Sock, for instance, was issued a warning letter from the Food and Drug Administration classifying it as a medical device because it provides heart rate and blood oxygen information. The company disagreed but has since pulled them from the market and will soon debut a new sleep monitoring solution.   These monitors also come with privacy concerns — a seemingly ongoing and eternal struggle in this new age of constant connectedness. One such example was the popular smart monitor iBaby. Vulnerabilities allowed intruders to download video recordings and even control the camera. This isn't limited to one brand or set of smart monitors; the entire spectrum of these devices is known to have security flaws, which may give parents pause before using them.   Baby Bottle Tech   Whether parents are using formula, breastfeeding or some combination of the two, technology can help out with that, too. Smart formula makers such as the Baby Brezza and Burabi make dispensing that late-night bottle as easy as any K-cup machine. Brands also now offer smart bottle warmers that can be controlled through an app to ensure parents aren't overheating bottles (or forgetting to unplug the machine because of a sleepy haze).   Parents don't need to sterilize pacifiers and bottles between every feeding, but the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends doing so once a day, especially when an infant is under 3 months old, if they were premature or if they have a weakened immune system. There's health technology to help here, too, whether you want to sterilize with UV light or hot water.   The question is whether these items are really necessary. The baby industry is growing steadily — research shows the market for smart baby bottle warmers and sterilizers alone will be worth over $200 million by the end of the decade. It's good business, certainly, but is it necessary? New and expecting parents are certainly vulnerable to marketing, especially when they're frantically searching for anything that will make their lives easier in those sleep-deprived newborn days. If these devices accomplish that goal, they're worth the money. But the question is whether being able to connect these devices to an app, or having a one-touch button accomplish the task, is any easier than just accomplishing the feat manually.   Advances in Nursing   Breastfeeding parents also have new technology options at their disposal. One of the big complaints about pumping is that it's dreadfully inconvenient, and the devices are bulky. Enter the new wave of smart breast pump technology. Pumps like the Willow and Elvie offer easy, hands-free solutions that work with a simple nursing bra, allowing busy parents to pump on the go. Both have sleek apps that allow for more information about milk production and pumping behavior.   However, these technologies can also come with drawbacks. Breastfeeding can be challenging, even at the best of times, and advanced technology can't fix all of a parent's problems or provide needed support when things are hard.   Health and Wellness, Baby Style   One of the biggest pains in the rectum (quite literally, for a baby) is taking an infant's temperature when they're sick. It can be a panicky process, especially if parents are trying to get a reading fast. Smart thermometers, such as those made by Withings, can alleviate some of this stress. It's always better to take temperatures rectally for infants, of course, but at least a smart thermometer can let you know if there's a problem or not.   The wave of baby smart devices also extends to scales and noise machines. Hatch makes a changing pad that doubles as a scale for parents to track their baby's weight, and connected white noise machines and nightlights are becoming more popular. It seems that wherever parents look, there's a device (along with an app) to solve their problems.   Concerns Around Baby Tech   It's clear we're just at the beginning of the wave of smart technology aimed at parents and infants. This technology can fill gaps in the market and play a critical role in the safety and security of people who are expecting a child, but there are also larger concerns to be aware of.   With privacy taking the forefront in many tech discussions, it's important to pay attention to the security of these devices. Not only can they provide a window into your home and activities, but some can also give intruders access to your child. What's more, many of these smart connected devices collect all kinds of data, and it's sometimes unclear what companies will do with it.   There's also the concern that having this much data about an infant at a parent's fingertips can actually increase anxiety. When is there too much data? Do parents really need to catalog every breath, every roll, every sleep cycle? When does tracking increase anxiety, rather than relieve it? The sheer amount of data can be detrimental to parents' mental health.   Concerns aside, it's clear this technology can provide amazing and unexpected benefits to tired, wrung-out new parents just trying to survive the newborn days. A lot of what parents are paying for with this smart technology is reassurance and convenience, and many are happy and eager to pay for that.   Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery. 

Health Technology for New Parents Can Both Help and Harm

The human body's immune system is meant to defend against foreign invaders, but sometimes it gets confused. When we take medicine such as antibiotics to treat infections, our defense system can go into overdrive, causing hypersensitivity or an allergic reaction. Why can some people tolerate medicine while others break out in hives or sometimes even have a severe reaction called anaphylaxis? A recent genetics study found links suggesting that some people could be predisposed to medication allergies. The Penicillin Study Antibiotics are one of the most common causes of drug-related allergic reactions, with penicillin being the most prevalent. Reactions can range from mild (rash) to severe (anaphylaxis). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 10% of people report penicillin allergies, although only 1% of the population are truly allergic. Technical definitions aside, many people say they have experienced hypersensitivity to the medicine, such as rashes, nausea, wheezing and cardiovascular problems. Meanwhile, the remaining 90% of people are able to take the antibiotic without issues. To find out why some people are hypersensitive to the drug, researchers at the Estonian Genome Center at the University of Tartu combed through 600,000 electronic health records, as Science News reports. They found an association between people who said they were allergic to penicillin and a specific gene variant. The researchers also confirmed their findings by checking large banks of DNA samples. Again, they came to the same conclusion: People with self-reported penicillin allergies often have a genetic variation on an immune system gene. Role of HLA Genes in Drug Reactions The study has wider implications. It can help us begin to understand connections between allergies and genetics. The National Library of Medicine explains that HLA-B is part of a family of genes called the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex. These genes provide "instructions for making a protein that plays a critical role in the immune system." Proteins are large, complex molecules that are often called the building blocks of life. They are so abundant that our bodies need to sort out good proteins from bad ones. HLA genes help our immune system differentiate between our body's own proteins from those proteins made by foreign invaders, such as viruses and bacteria. There are hundreds of versions (alleles) of the HLA-B gene, each with a specific purpose and a number to identify it. The Estonian study, for example, linked penicillin allergy to a chromosome 6 variant called HLA-B*55:01. In addition to penicillin, people can be allergic to other medications. Science News points out that other studies have also connected HLA genes to bad reactions to abacavir, an HIV/AIDs drug, and a gout medication called allopurinol. Allergies and Genetics We can't say that an allergic reaction is caused by genetics, but understanding genetics can help us be aware that we may be predisposed to conditions such as allergies. This is an example of precision medicine, which uses genetics to find out the best possible treatment for each patient. DNA tests could help people find out if they are likely to be allergic to medication so that they can work with their healthcare providers to assess risks and consider alternative medicines, if necessary. As we continue to learn more about the links between genetics and the immune system, doctors and scientists can ensure that people receive the right medication for their specific needs.

Links Between Allergic Reaction and Immune System Genetics

Well-known wearable gadgets include smartwatches that sync with your phone and fitness trackers. The future of wearable technology is predicted to go far beyond exercise trackers, however. Advances in material fabrication for flexible electronics coupled with the availability of smaller power sources that power up in an instant are already reducing the size of wearables. Combine these with an enhanced IoT (Internet of Things), connectedness for rapid data exchange could put wearables for personal safety, comfort and information right at your fingertips, wrist or even your dog's collar. Beyond Steps: Wearable Gadgets for Smart Healthcare The convenience factor of immediate on-the-body access to a wearable and its data could help you stay healthy. PC Mag's report on wearables at this year's Consumer Electronics Show (CES19) highlights a smartwatch with electrocardiogram (ECG) functionality. As previously reported, the Internet of Bodies (IoB) is poised to accelerate with enhanced interconnectedness; this means wearables could even help track elusive cardiac arrhythmias. Other wearables highlighted at CES19 include a device to monitor fetal health during pregnancy and a device to track bladder function for individuals prone to urine retention. Both wearables use skin sensors placed over the abdomen, which send data on baby kicks or bladder levels to a smartphone app. Turning Disability Into Accessibility With Wearables Repurposing the senses, allowing one sense to be amplified in the absence of another, is another advancement in wearable technology. For example, IEE Spectrum mentions a wrist device that uses sensory substitution to relay speech as patterns of vibration for deaf people; users learn to recognize the patterns, associating each with sounds. Another project uses woven conductive textiles to drape a body in haptics. In the form of a shirt, this technology can translate the sounds of an orchestra into different vibrations played over the surface of the skin. Fortune describes how micro-actuators direct sound from each instrument to different areas on the torso, immersing users in the orchestral experience. Security and Smart Healthcare The future of wearable technology is on the lookout for your safety. For instance, this year's CES19 promoted a personal alarm button worn on the wrist. Also available are RFID-blocking wearables that prevent identity theft. Esub describes two wearable gadgets that can help worker safety — one of which catches you before you nod off. Micro-sleeps are a risk in many industries where workers operate heavy machinery, but the smart cap wearable checks in on brainwaves and alertness to give drivers or construction workers a heads up that they are fatigued. Another device comes as a personal tag that tracks worker activity and location; linked to a central monitoring station, a supervisor can keep a virtual eye on construction sites, for example. Falls automatically trigger an emergency response and the tags will also send out a distress call when triggered by the wearer. Heard About Hearables? If you haven't, you will soon. A Nieman Reports article describes how sunglasses laden with positional sensors will be able to tell not only where you are but which direction you are facing. This could be good for the directionally challenged, but even better if you are interested in the location-specific audio relayed to your ears. Imagine being alerted to construction diversions or security incidents while on your usual walking route. Hearables are predicted to be more visible as wearables this year. Fitness Tracking for All Four Paws It's not just humans that need to count steps, apparently; fitness trackers for your pet are a growing market, too, with wearable gadgets to track all four paws. The furry future of wearable technology also includes GPS or accelerometer capabilities to track your pet's location. Wareable lists a number of collars and tags that will upload data on walks, body temperature and calories burned. Apart from tracking a lost pet, data uploads could be useful for monitoring health. As the tech gets smaller and more convenient for 24/7 access, even your cat can benefit from the future of wearable technology. Dare we say, purrfect?   https://esub.com/top-construction-wearables-watch-2018/ 

Smart Healthcare: The Future of Wearable Technology

If you've ever struggled to remember a password, then biometric security might have some appeal. By recognizing physical features that are unique to you — like your fingerprints, face and even your ears — biometric technology allows you to unlock your favorite devices and apps effortlessly in a secure environment. Old Idea, New Techniques While various computer manufacturers have experimented with fingerprint-based IDs, the practice saw a huge boost in 2013 when Apple introduced Touch ID for its iPhone. Since then, biometrics have been used to secure all types of applications.  MasterCard and Nymi announced in 2015 that they could authenticate a user's credit card purchases by measuring the user's heartbeat, said VentureBeat. Google has also looked into using speech patterns as an identifier under its Project Abacus, TechCrunch reported. Descartes Biometrics uses customers' ears as biometric markers, according to Wired. There are parts of China where commuters can use facial recognition to pay for their train or bus fare, according to Engadget. KFC has also experimented with face-based payment in that country, as TechCrunch reported. Allied Market Research predicts that the global facial recognition market will be a $9.6 billion business by 2022, fueled by targeted advertising. An electronic billboard might discern your age, gender and ethnicity and tailor an ad based on those factors, a la Minority Report. Security Concerns Despite the industry's fondness for biometric security, the current technology is far from foolproof. Body parts can easily be replicated through various methods, putting your financial, medical and personal information at risk. As Alvaro Bedoya, professor of law at Georgetown University, told Wired, a hacker can "steal" biometric identifiers by lifting your fingerprint from a glass or taking a high-resolution image of your ear. One security exec was able to hack into Apple's Touch ID by transferring the iPhone owner's fingerprints onto a blob of Play-Doh, according to Fortune. The trick also worked for Android and Microsoft-based devices. In 2016, researchers were able to use fake fingerprints to fool biometric systems as much as 65 percent of the time, according to The New York Times. To make matters worse, hackers have compromised millions of fingerprints, per The Washington Post. Similarly, a Vietnamese security company was able to fool Apple's Face ID with a high-resolution mask, as BGR reported. The company said that Face ID wasn't secure enough to be used in business transactions. To their credit, Apple claims that the chance of a false match in its Touch ID system is 1 in 50,000. And Google's Android system typically takes eight to 10 images of a fingerprint in an effort to thwart hackers, said The New York Times. The Future of Biometrics The danger is that the demand for biometric security will prompt a slew of less-than-secure solutions. But the market demand for biometrics will ensure that top-tier companies like Apple and Google will focus on perfecting the technology. As usual, humans are the weakest link in security, so new protocols will need to be initiated to ensure that biometric markers like fingerprints are protected. The other issue is privacy. It's an open question whether citizens in the West will submit to facial recognition software everywhere they go. Already, some firms — like Israel's D-ID, which slightly alters photos so algorithms can't recognize them — are creating self-defense measures for citizens who want to protect their privacy. More low-tech solutions include wearing sunglasses with hallucinogenic patterns and wearing masks in public. In the end, consumers might conclude that passwords weren't so bad after all.

Biometric Security: How the Fingerprint Is Replacing the Password

Water — we all know it's essential. And yet, in underprivileged communities all over the world, gaining access to clean water can be a major challenge. Experts estimate that 663 million people, nearly one tenth of the world's population, live without safe water. That's why organizations are turning to new technologies to make safe water available for everyone.Ease of Access"Dirty water is responsible for more deaths in the world than all forms of violence, including war," says Scott Harrison, the founder of the nonprofit charity: water that has funded more than 21,000 projects to bring safe, convenient water to millions of people all over the world. Harrison, along with dozens of other innovators, see a role for technology in their mission. So do companies with a technology focus who understand clean water connects to global security as well as humanitarian missions. Northrop Grumman's environmental sustainability programs have focused their efforts to address the global challenges surrounding clean water availability. The company sponsors organizations such as Water Wells for Africa, Water for People, and Engineers Without Borders which enable projects such as the drilling of new water wells in Malawi and development of water distribution and filtration systems in Nicaragua.In some communities, it's a struggle to simply get water to drink; on average, women and girls in developing countries walk 3.5 miles per day to get their water. It has long been a priority for aid organizations to install wells and pumps in towns so that residents only have to walk to the center of town to get water for their families instead of to rivers that are miles away. Some, such as charity: water, are giving those wells a techy upgrade by equipping them with sensors so that people all around the world can see if water is flowing and alert technicians if they stop working.In other places, however, wells simply aren't possible. So inventors have created new ways to bring the water to people. Some are using mesh to harvest water from fog. Though the technology to do this is already in use in more than a dozen countries, researchers from MIT are developing a more efficient material. Other innovations, such as Warka Water, are more elaborate installations that combine different water-harvesting techniques like collecting rainwater, dew and fog to provide communities with the water they need.Filtering Techniques on the RiseBut gaining access to water is only half the battle; if water is not properly treated, people can ingest bacteria, viruses and parasites that can cause life-threatening illnesses. So scientists have created different techniques for purifying water to make it safe to drink. Some involve filters that trap microbes and chemical contaminants. One, called LifeStraw, contains a carbon-based filter that cleans water as it moves through a straw. Similar filters, such as Liquidity and Lifesaver, contain high-tech materials to purify water quickly and effectively. Though these filters are effective and don't require any power to operate, they often cost a bit more up front and eventually need to be replaced. Some are also not designed to be used in large volumes, as would be needed for things like cooking.Other researchers are working on devices that can clean water with ultraviolet light. Researchers from Stanford University created a solar panel about the size of a piece of gum that cleans water with UV light, though it hasn't yet been tested in real-world settings. And another lunchbox-sized device called Ellie disinfects using LED lights. Though they are currently marketing Ellie to clean baby bottles on crowdfunding site Indiegogo, its creators hope to use Ellie to clean water in the places that need it most as they grow their company over the next few years. These technologies are less developed than filters and may require electricity, but they disinfect quickly and could make a big difference to people living without clean water if and when they are mass produced.Each of these innovations might seem like only a small step towards solving the crisis of clean water. But they can make all the difference to people who benefit from such innovations. And to hear philanthropists tell it, it's not such a far-fetched goal. According to a charity: water blog post: "We can solve the water crisis in our lifetime. We know how! But we can't do it alone."

Tech-Treated Clean Water is Good Enough to Drink

Key Takeaways Current diagnostic tech relies heavily on the efforts of medical professionals. Artificial intelligence could help speed up the process and improve diagnostic outputs. AI won't replace healthcare staff — instead, the future of diagnostics will be a tandem effort.Despite years of training and experience — and a vast wealth of medical knowledge at their fingertips — doctors still have difficulty pinpointing certain conditions and diseases. Artificial intelligence (AI) holds the promise of reshaping diagnostic technology and helping doctors finally put a finger on diseases that have a way of eluding detection.What Is Diagnostic Technology?Diagnostics is the process of identifying diseases or other health conditions. Diagnostic technologies help streamline these efforts.According to the World Health Organization, these technologies include "medical devices, techniques and procedures used for in vitro and in vivo determination of physiological status or presence and characteristics of a disease."How Is AI Used in Diagnostics?Some of the most evasive diseases could be easier to detect with AI-supported diagnostic technology. This technology can scan thousands of medical records and analyze data that might escape medical professionals' attention, improving the time-consuming process of classifying medical records.Electronic health records (EHRs) potentially possess bits of insight that can lead to more precise diagnoses and improved healthcare. According to a 2022 Report to Congress from the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology, 96% of all non-federal acute care hospitals use EHRs.While the digitization of patient records makes it easier for medical professionals to access key data on demand, this information still needs to be read by a doctor. The tedious nature of the process — not to mention the role of fatigue and distraction from other pressing issues — may cause a health professional to overlook a symptom or misdiagnose a condition.AI, meanwhile, doesn't get tired. Give intelligent tools a set of instructions and turn them loose on large data sets, and they're perfectly capable of working day and night until they find an answer or discover a connection, no matter how minute.Making a DifferenceAI-enabled technology is already helping improve diagnostic accuracy.As noted by the World Economic Forum, a Japanese startup has developed an endoscopic AI tool that can analyze images in 0.02 seconds and accurately determine if cancer is present in 94% of cases. While accuracy is similar for human physicians, it takes them 4 seconds on average to read an image. By using AI, doctors can speed up the screening process while still keeping human oversight intact.AI is also improving the early detection of illnesses, such as pancreatic cancer. Researchers at Mayo Clinic have introduced an AI technology that can automatically detect cancer in CT scans — in some cases, the technology was able to detect cancer up to 475 days before its eventual, clinical diagnosis. With most pancreatic cancer patients still receiving their diagnosis when they've reached advanced stages of the disease, this AI-driven approach could help improve treatment options and reduce mortality rates.Work out of Germany, meanwhile, focuses on the use of AI to detect rare types of gastrointestinal diseases, according to News Medical. The new AI model only needs training data from less-common diseases to reliably detect their less-frequency counterparts. Using what's known as anomaly detection, the model can quickly recognize and flag deviations from "normal" tissue, which may indicate a gastrointestinal issue.The Future of Artificial Intelligence and MedicineAI diagnostics can help support — not supplant — medical professionals. While intelligent tools excel at data entry, capture and analysis, they come up short in context. Put simply, humans are more than the sum of our symptoms; what works for one patient may not work for another, even if their disease presentation is almost identical.The result is a shared future for AI and medical staff. High-tech tools can help reduce the amount of time doctors spend sifting through records and offer insightful observations on potential diagnoses. Armed with this information, healthcare professionals are better prepared to meet patients where they are and create personalized treatment plans.Discover how Northrop Grumman is leading the way in AI and machine learning. 

The Future of Diagnostic Technology and Artificial Intelligence

3D—printed objects are no longer a novelty and are paving the way for incredible scientific innovation. For example, a large 3D—printed engine part was successfully tested and could be used in the next generation SLS rocket that will send humans to the moon and Mars, NASA reported. Advanced 3D printing is also improving medical treatments and military technology. Advanced 3D Printing in Medicine The road to recovery for any individual with deep skin wounds, which affect all three layers of the skin, can be as painful and traumatic as the incident itself. Researchers at the University of Toronto have developed a handheld 3D printer filled with "bio ink" — essentially an ink cartridge containing biological materials. The bio ink contains strips of biomaterial that include the proteins collagen and fibrin, which are used to promote wound healing. As noted by the university, there are two types of skin grafts: a full thickness skin graft and a split thickness skin graft. Full thickness skin grafts are used for smaller areas, including the hands and face, since the grafts blend well with a person's skin. Split thickness skin grafts, on the other hand, are used to treat large areas and are typically thinner, which can lead to shrinkage and gaps in skin coverage. A deep wound that damages the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis requires a split thickness skin graft. Split thickness skin grafts require large amounts of tissue, but 3D printers can eliminate this need. The University of Toronto's portable 3D printer takes just two minutes to set the tissue on the individual. This scientific innovation can increase skin graft coverage area and improve recovery times for patients.  Another research team from Spain is also working on a 3D bioprinter: it can take three weeks to cover a large wound, but this 3D bioprinter would significantly reduce the treatment time, according to research published in the journal Biofabrication. 3D Printing Advances for Military Security Military personnel entering a dangerous situation may not have time to stop and check a piece of equipment to determine if the area is free from chemical or biological agents. However, a temporary tattoo loaded with electronic sensors printed on their hand can quickly alert them to any danger. Researchers at the University of Minnesota have developed a portable 3D printer that is small enough to fit in a person's hand or inside a backpack. The printer can track its place on an individual's skin and print a functional tattoo that is equipped with sensors. It can also print ink to create different chemical sensors for any situation, according to the university. Additionally, the 3D printer can print a portable charging station for electronic equipment and can produce solar cells on skin, both of which can be used to charge devices out in the field. The Future of 3D Printing 3D printing advances are helping to shape the future of wound care and military security. Artificial organs may even be in our future. As printers get even faster and more advanced, there isn't an area of life that won't be affected by this scientific innovation.

Advanced 3D Printing Is Changing Medicine and Military Safety

Companies are spending on 3-D print solutions. As noted by Forbes, 90 percent of organizations believe 3-D printing offers a competitive advantage, with 47 percent seeing greater return on investment than last year and 72 percent expecting to spend more on the technology through 2018. The challenge? Expanding print's potential. While 3-D prototyping has launched a new industrial revolution, there's now a trend toward 3-D bioprinting. A major benefit of 3-D bioprinting includes replacing organs or creating viable biological structures capable of encouraging tissue replication. This is no easy feat, but the recent development of "super soft" materials could help solve the hard problem of creating artificial organs. Heart of the Matter 3-D printing is already used to empower human beings. For example, advancements in printing techniques and materials have created a market for custom-built artificial limbs designed to give Paralympic athletes mobility and utility much closer to typical body function than previous generations of prosthetics could, according to 3DPrint.com. Inside the body, however, unique challenges emerge. If printed organs and tissues don't match the composition of internal structures, implantation could result in rejection or outright failure. As noted by IDTechEx, lack of tissue vascularization can be a major issue as well. Without vasculature to transport nutrients and oxygen freely, tissues and organs suffer. While there are several methods of using 3-D bioprinting to create artificial vasculature, the complex design of vasculature can be difficult to replicate. Print speed is a problem that can also be attributed to the complexity of living tissue. If tiny, complex structures take too long to replicate, cells may become compromised. Organ and tissue material has also been difficult to replicate. Hard plastics are easy to work with since they can be heated, shaped, molded and then cooled. Complex organic structures, meanwhile, must be incredibly soft yet able to hold their shape under stress. Organizing Evolution Humans have an unstoppable drive to solve "impossible" problems, so it's no surprise that researchers are making significant strides in 3-D printing artificial organs. As noted by Design News, advancements in sheer computer power and throughput have helped tackle the issue of complexity. Data from CT or MRI scans converted to printable form no longer suffer complexity loss, allowing for the creation of exact replicas. According to Inverse, a team from Rutgers University has created a water-based hydrogel that allows for the creation of cells that change shape in response to temperature fluctuations, just like those in the human body. Similarly, research in Switzerland has led to "functional living ink" (or "flink"), which contains both hydrogel and living bacteria that can be used in biomedical applications, according to Chemical & Engineering News. Imperial College London researchers may have finally cracked a critical breakthrough: Super soft 3-D printed tissue. According to Science Daily, the team uses solid carbon dioxide to rapidly cool hydrogel ink immediately after 3-D bioprinting. Once thawed, the material matches body tissue softness but doesn't collapse under its own weight. An Artificial Future? What does this mean for the future of artificial organs? Super soft printed tissues could be used to create similarly soft scaffolds that encourage tissue regeneration without triggering immune system rejection. The technique could also be used to grow stable stem cells, highly valued for their ability to change form and function. Since these scaffolds are super soft, they reduce the strain on biological processes during the already-stressful period of new organ adaptation and integration, according to Science Daily. Take it a step further, and you're talking about full-on 3-D printed human hearts created using patients' own cells. According to Fast Company, the benefits up for grabs here are substantial. Since these artificial organs are the exact same size and genetic makeup as their organic progenitors, the need for immunosuppressant drugs to prevent rejection would be substantially reduced. And as the cost of 3-D printing comes down thanks to market-volume increases, access to transplant hearts is no longer limited by the number of organ donors. The hard problem of organ transplant is getting a soft solution. New 3-D printing techniques mean better organs, superior scaffolds and the potential for healthcare solutions based on biology and driven by human ingenuity. 

"Soft" 3-D Bioprinting: Solving the Hard Problem of Artificial Organs

Key Takeaways Robotic assistants are revolutionizing remote surgery in space. SpaceMIRA utilizes high-definition cameras. Remote surgery is necessary with the rise of space tourism.Two hundred and twenty miles above Earth, the surgeons were cutting. Through layers of tightly stretched rubber bands mimicking human tissue, their sharpened shears sliced. Meanwhile, tiny grabbers mounted on the arm of their robotic assistant held the bands in place.What made this precision surgery more challenging and exciting than the usual practice procedure is that the doctors weren't in the house. This remote operation was performed in a box the size of a microwave mounted to a wall in the International Space Station (ISS). The team of six surgeons operating spaceMIRA — a miniaturized in-vivo robotic assistant — were visible only through a screen.Making the Cut: The Future of Surgical OperationsNASA has been looking into how to perform robotic surgery in space for a long time. The first remote-guided operation event finally took place in orbit on Feb 10, 2024, a few weeks after spaceMIRA arrived at the ISS onboard a Northrop Grumman cargo ship. Like virtual precision procedures on Earth, the challenges and benefits of practicing medicine via a robotic assistant were immediately apparent.On the upside, the images hovering before MIRA's remote operators stationed in Lincoln, Nebraska, and Houston, Texas, were huge. SpaceMIRA's high-definition cameras made the gator clips and rubber bands wielded by the robotic assistant appear orders of magnitude larger than life.Less ideal was the time lag. When surgeons on Earth use precision surgery devices, like the DaVinci, the robotic digits move nearly as quickly as their own. By contrast, because of the time it takes for spaceMIRA to receive its directives from Earth, MIRA moves an average of 0.85 seconds after the surgeons on Earth.Against the OddsIn the case of a medical emergency, a slightly slower surgery is strongly preferable to no surgery at all. Though there's yet to be a medical emergency on the ISS requiring surgery, it's not a matter of if such an emergency will take place but when.According to the University of California San Francisco, in terms of events per person per year, the risks of a surgical emergency happening in microgravity may be higher than they are on Earth. As of today, less than 600 people have ever been to the altitude of the ISS. Yet, there have been two suspected cases of appendicitis, according to the British Journal of Surgery. One of these cases, a cosmonaut, was returned to Earth for treatment in 1982 — the only option unless a surgeon is onboard with all the tools and time they need to conduct an operation.More than 40 years later, the risk of loss of crew life due to acute appendicitis or cholecystitis — an infection of the gallbladder — raises enough concern that conversations about removing these organs before spaceflight are ongoing, as noted by npj Microgravity. After all, on a trip to Mars, there's no fast way home. Even the moon might be too far to evacuate a space explorer with a kidney stone they can't pass on their own.With the rapid rise of space tourism, more humans with more medical conditions than ever before will be pushing further into the cosmos. Even if there were a doctor onboard, given the mass and volume limitations during space missions, would they have the necessary tools on hand to make the tiniest cut possible before the blood started to float away from the wound? If the mission had a robotic surgical suite packed away in the corner, the onboard doctor could deploy it as needed to maximize precision and vision in the cramped confines of the ship.In the absence of a crew doctor, a device like spaceMIRA might stand in for the ship's surgeon, extending the reach of the nearest medical provider to the moon, Mars and beyond.Almost Within Reach: Virtual Precision ProceduresPrecision surgery via robotic assistant systems was invented to help medical practitioners make the smallest and best cuts possible in the least amount of time. Teleoperation devices, like spaceMIRA, have been doing just that on Earth whether or not the surgeon was in the room: Years before its debut in microgravity, MIRA was used to remove part of a patient's large intestine remotely. Students at the University of Nebraska are training on it now.Mastering surgery in space would not only vastly increase a space mission's medical capability — how well a medical need within the mission matches the resources available — but also solve a critical and ongoing problem faced by the people of Earth every day: The countries with the fastest-growing populations have less than 1 surgeon per 100,000 people, as reported in The Lancet Global Health. Virtual precision procedures conducted via robotic assistant are the future of surgical operations wherever the need for surgeons is unmet. A teleoperation device like MIRA delivered to developing countries, remote regions and low-resource healthcare facilities would effectively bring world-class surgeons into the room without the aid of transportation of any kind.With spaceMIRA, the ultimate robotic assistant and teleoperation device, the doctor doesn't need to be in the house to perform precision surgery in space — or anywhere.Learn more about our people and life at Northrop Grumman, or check out our career opportunities to see how you can be a part of defining possible.

The Doctor Is in Outer Space: How a Robotic Assistant Is Revolutionizing Remote Surgery

Depression is a serious, and unfortunately quite common, health condition. According to the American Psychiatric Association, it affects one in 15 adults every year, while one in six people will experience depression sometime during their life. That's a lot of people! It's not always clear what causes depression — it can be an imbalance in brain chemistry or a byproduct of personality, environmental factors, or genetics. The good news, though, is there are many treatment options, from medication to psychotherapy to electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). And now, there may be a new treatment on the horizon: brain implants. Researchers have been experimenting with brain implants to treat depression, and the results have been surprising. While they may not be widely available anytime soon, it bodes well for the future of treating this insidious disease. One day it could even be a depression cure. Why Are Brain Implants Effective as a Depression Cure? Electroconvulsive therapy, or ECT, is an effective treatment for severe depression cases, but it's not a depression cure. While it's more conventionally known as shock therapy, it's very different from the historical practice. It's done under general anesthesia, according to The Mayo Clinic, and involves passing electrical currents to parts of the brain. The end goal is to trigger a seizure which will alter brain chemistry. While there's no guarantee it will work, it can have an effect on the most serious depression cases that don't respond to other treatments. Brain implants work similarly. In a paper published in Nature Medicine, scientists detail how they treated an individual with major depressive disorder who didn't respond to any other treatment, including ECT. A team at the University of California, San Francisco implanted a device called NeuroPace RNS, originally approved for epilepsy treatment, into the right hemisphere of the patient's brain, and thanks to a wire, it was able to monitor the patient's amygdala for signs of depression and provide electric stimulation to counter the effects. What Does a Brain Implant Look For? Before implanting the NeuroPace RNS, researchers studied the patient's brain closely. They engaged in "stimulus-response mapping," according to the study, which monitored the effects of stimulating different parts of the brain. As a result, scientists were able to discover treatment locations to stimulate in order to counter the effects of the patient's deep depression. As a Scientific American article notes, the team found that by activating an area of the patient's brain in the ventral striatum, they were able to produce feelings of glee and happiness. But it wasn't enough to know which area to stimulate in order to provide treatment. Scientists also needed to know when to administer this treatment. In order to do that, they mapped the patient's brain and found that gamma oscillations in the amygdala were a reliable indicator of when the patient's depression symptoms were about to spike. What Does a Brain Implant Do to Fight Depression? Thanks to the wire placed into the patient's amygdala, the implant knew exactly when to administer treatment. It did so in six-second bursts, stimulating the area of the ventral striatum that increased the patient's happiness until the gamma oscillations decreased. Once that happened, treatment was deemed effective and the implant was turned off until the next time gamma oscillations triggered another wave. It provided the patient gentle stimulation as needed throughout the day. According to a University of California San Francisco study, the patient reported that her depression symptoms have virtually disappeared over the months she's been using the implant. What's Next for Brain Implants and Depression? It's important to note that this is just a study of one person, so it's definitely too early to label this brain implant a depression cure. But it's incredibly promising. The next step for scientists is to work with the patient to spend six weeks off the device and six weeks with it turned on in order to evaluate whether the disappearance of symptoms could be a placebo effect. This brain implant has a long way to go before it's available for wider use. But it's certainly an interesting start, and it might offer people with major depressive disorder a real chance at living a life free from depression symptoms. Are you interested in science and innovation? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Brain Implants Could Help Treat — and Possibly Cure — Severe Depression

An estimated 50 million people worldwide are living with a form of dementia, a disease that deteriorates one of humanity's most precious resources: memory. Just as our bodies change as we get older, some changes in the brain are a normal part of aging. It's natural to lose some neurons as you get older, but if you have dementia, this loss of brainpower happens at much a faster rate and causes widespread damage throughout different areas of the brain. While early stages include mild symptoms such as forgetfulness, as the disease progresses, it snuffs out the brain's ability to think, speak and function. There is no cure yet. Researchers are working to find a deeper understanding of what's happening on the cellular level so that we can delay and possibly even prevent the brain from shutting down. Normal Aging Versus Brain Diseases Contrary to previous misconceptions, scientists now understand that dementia is not a normal part of aging. People who have dementia experience a loss of cognitive functioning, including thinking, remembering and reasoning. As the disease progresses, it interferes with the person's daily activities and, eventually, causes them to need constant assistance in order to live. The World Health Organization (WHO) says that dementia is a major cause of disability and dependency worldwide. Our brains are filled with billions of neurons, the specialized cells that process information and transmit signals between different parts of the brain to the rest of our body. These cells are responsible for our thoughts, feelings and movements. If something goes wrong, these neurons stop working. New advancements in imaging techniques have allowed researchers to physically see what happens to the brains of people with dementia.  Alzheimer's disease, the most common form of dementia, physically shrinks the brain. U.S. News reports that a third of the brain disappears from atrophy, neuron loss and white matter loss. Dementia doesn't just cause memory loss. In the advanced stages of the disease, it also affects language skills, visual perception, problem solving, self-management and the ability to focus, according to the National Institute on Aging (NIA). The current scientific understanding is that Alzheimer's disease is caused by two proteins that become toxic in the brain. These proteins, called amyloid plaques and tau tangles, collect in the brain and eventually cause atrophy. While Alzheimer's is the most common cause of dementia (associated with 60% to 80% of cases, according to the NIA), there are also other types and causes. Brain damage can also be caused by the vascular system failing to deliver enough blood and nutrients to the brain. Plus, some cognitive problems occur because of chronic inflammation or not having enough glucose to power its normal activity. Stages of Brain Diseases 1. Early Stage: Forgetfulness In the early stage, symptoms can be subtle or even undetectable. According to U.S. News, in the earliest (preclinical) phase, there are some changes in the brain, but symptoms can be so mild that the patient and doctor may not notice anything wrong. The first part of the brain that Alzheimer's damages is the hippocampus, which is the region associated with learning and memory formation. At this stage, old memories remain, but newer ones don't stick. This causes problems such as forgetting where you put things and repeating questions. Although we don't have the ability to resuscitate dead neurons, sometimes, the underlying condition is treatable, so early diagnosis can benefit from available treatments. 2. Middle Stage: Communication Difficulties In early stages, different types of dementia and their symptoms look alike, but as the disease progresses, more areas of the brain are affected. For example, damage spreads to the cortex, the thin outer layer of the brain associated with language, reasoning and social behavior. This causes more symptoms beyond forgetfulness, such as worsening language, visuo-spatial skills and executive function. 3. Late Stage: Need for Assisted Self-Care In severe stages of the disease, even more neurons die and many areas of the brain are damaged. People with late stages of dementia are no longer able to live without constant care. Eventually, the disease is fatal. The Future There is no cure for dementia. However, there are ways to help prevent or reduce the onset of symptoms:   Pharmaceutical drugs such as those that reduce the toxic proteins  Therapies that target the vascular system, glucose metabolism and inflammation  Lifestyle interventions such as physical exercise and diet changes that can delay the onset of symptoms  Behavioral changes that improve brain health  Dementia is heartbreaking, and it's so common that WHO points out that it has a physical, psychological, social and economic impact on society at large. Up until recently, dementia was considered part of the aging process. However, we've now seen that the type of brain damage that accompanies dementia is far beyond what is typical for those brains that have not been afflicted. With an aging population of baby boomers, there may be more research funding for clinical trials that can look at the mechanisms of this disease and potential treatments. 

Dementia and Our Brains

Aerospace medicine combines two challenging and important disciplines. This field of study has existed for a century, but it is especially exciting now that commercial space travel and deep space missions are both in the works. What is this unique career? An Overview of Aerospace Medicine Aerospace physicians support the health of people who fly for a living — pilots, aircrews and astronauts, all of whom face unique occupational hazards. These doctors often have military backgrounds, as they need to have training and experience in both medicine and aviation. Here on Earth, doctors often take care of sick or injured patients in normal environments, but in space medicine, the situation is quite the opposite. A big part of this field revolves around preventative medicine, with doctors making sure that their patients are in top health so that they can handle the abnormal environment of flights, especially if their patients are going to space. Much like sports trainers, these doctors make sure that astronauts are physically prepared to perform at the highest levels. According to the Aerospace Medicine Association, aviation medicine was originally driven by the high losses of life due to physically unfit pilots during World War I. Later, the field evolved beyond aviation medicine to include aerospace medicine once crewed space flight began. Today, aerospace physicians, such as flight surgeons, provide medical support for astronauts during training and missions. They also play a role in selecting astronauts for flying on missions, according to the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). If astronauts have health issues in space, it is a dangerous and expensive problem to solve. The CSA explains that flight surgeons help during:   Pre-flight, by ensuring that the crew is healthy and prepared to use medical equipment or necessary countermeasures to reduce the negative effects spaceflight can have on their health.  In-flight by maintaining the health of the astronauts and providing 24-hour support at the Mission Control Center.  Post-flight by examining returning astronauts at the landing site and overseeing their rehabilitation as they reacclimate to Earth.  Effects of Space on the Body Space agencies have studied the short- and long-term effects of space environments on the human body. Civilians get a small peek into the effects of flight when they experience conditions such as altitude sickness or the feeling of your ears "popping" during a flight. In space, there's much more to contend with, as leaving the comfortable bubble of our atmosphere creates a range of hazards for humans. NASA describes five categories of stress related to space travel:   Gravity fields. The weightlessness of space affects spatial orientation, head-eye and hand-eye coordination, balance and locomotion. Plus, without gravity, your bones lose minerals, with density dropping at over 1% per month. To counteract this, astronauts must devote two-and-a-half hours each day to exercising in space.  Isolation and confinement. The psychological effects of living at the International Space Station (ISS) or in a space vehicle are just as important as the physical issues. Being confined to a small space over long periods of time can cause behavioral issues among the group, as well as declines in mood and morale, trouble sleeping and boredom.  Hostile/closed environments. It's not healthy to live in a bubble. Microorganisms such as bacteria transfer easily, your immune system is altered, and stress hormones are elevated.  Space radiation. At the International Space Station, astronauts are exposed to ten times the radiation that we experience at home. This poses an increased cancer risk and possible damage to the central nervous system, which can cause problems with cognitive function, motor function and behavioral changes. Space can also cause radiation sickness and degenerative tissue diseases, such as cataracts and cardiac issues.  Distance from Earth. If an astronaut is sick or injured, they can't exactly call 911 for an ambulance ride to the nearest hospital. The simple fact that they are far away from Earth is a health risk. This is a concern on the ISS, but it will be even more critical for future missions to the Moon and Mars. While today's space travelers can at least use telemedicine to speak to doctors from millions of miles away, there will be communication delays.  Space Medicine Career Outlook This highly specialized career helps to support the future of space travel and is crucial to the aerospace industry. The Emergency Medicine Residents' Association suggests that there is a greater need for highly trained aerospace medicine physicians because of the recent focus on an accelerated lunar program and the emerging commercial space flight industry. This medical specialty isn't just about space, either. Many space physicians also study the physiology of microgravity on the human body and how it can help to fight conditions here on Earth, such as NASA's study of astronaut twins Scott and Mark Kelly. Aerospace medicine helps humans push the bounds of what is possible, as we continue to explore the unknown.

The Next Frontier: Aerospace Medicine

Before diving into something potentially exciting, there needs to be a disclaimer. What's being explored in this article should not be tried at home nor is this an endorsement to seek out a potentially available product. With your curiosity piqued, it's time to talk about transcranial magnetic stimulation. The potential therapy is non-invasive and inexpensive, and sessions would barely interrupt your daily routine. The benefits could include improvements in cognitive function, language skills and mood. While promising, the science is far from conclusive regarding its use or potential side effects. Not Quite Shock Therapy Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) involves a small electromagnetic coil placed on the targeted area of the head to stimulate nerve cells. The electromagnetic pulse could activate the part of your brain that helps regulate emotion or the left frontal lobe, known as Broca's Area, that acts as the speech center of your brain.  Enable targeting cookies to view this content. Currently, TMS is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of severe depression in patients who have not responded to other types of treatment. A repetitive TMS session generally lasts between 30 and 60 minutes and does not require anesthesia. Side effects are minor, ranging from headache to scalp irritation at the contact site. Serious side effects such as seizure are rare, according to the Mayo Clinic. A key advantage to transcranial magnetic stimulation is its targeted nature. The pulses penetrate approximately two inches into the brain, which means only the targeted areas are stimulated. TMS can be effective in a clinical setting, but a whole cottage industry has popped up around stimulation therapy with claims of improved learning and memory. Expanding Your Mind Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) is similar to TMS as it's a noninvasive process but uses electrical currents instead of magnetic fields. Electrodes are placed on the individual during a task where a direct current stimulates the brain for 30 minutes. An Air Force training study involving pilots selecting drone targets while receiving tDCS saw improved accuracy for 40 minutes instead of a decline after 20 minutes, reports Scientific American. [skyword_iframe width="560" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/Rdd_0d8JkAY" ] If that result bears out on a larger scale, that means learning and training time could be cut in half. Whether it's studying for a test, learning a language for fun or a general desire to learn more, tDCS could be a way to "hack your brain," according to the Economist. Reduced time training or learning could also lead to new innovations as more people could enter fields that require advanced skills. For students, testing will no longer be feared but embraced. It's not just about personal betterment but a potential road map to an improved, well-educated society. Formal studies indicate tDCS could be another alternative treatment to severe depression, similar to TMS, while another study revealed the treatment's potential to improve language skills. Young, healthy participants performing naming tasks had faster reaction times and improved naming performance. The improvements were observed well after the tDCS session. Scientists are excited about the potential of tDCS, but it's still in the early phase of research. Unlike TMS, it has yet to be approved by the FDA for clinical treatments. That has not stopped some intrepid individuals who have created at-home devices using a headset and a 9v battery and have shared their experiences on a popular forum on Reddit. Many users swear by tDCS and its ability to improve overall learning speed or performance on more abstract tasks. However, any device that can be purchased online is not approved by the FDA, nor are the long-term effects understood at this point. Like with any claims of a potential breakthrough, it's best to add a grain of salt to every boast.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: A Shocking New Way to Unlock Your Potential?

The human brain is incredibly resilient. Because of neuroplasticity, the brain's ability to modify its connections or rewire itself, we're able to learn new skills and recover from brain injury. Our neurons, the fundamental building blocks of the brain and nervous system, are malleable. Previously, scientists believed that our brains stopped changing shortly after birth. But neuroscientists now understand that neuroplasticity continues even as we age. Our neurons continue to change by:   Reorganizing pathways  Creating new connections  (Less often) creating new neurons  "The brain's hardware and software are practically inseparable," neuroscientist David Eagleman told Nautilus. He continued, "These vast seas of [neuron] connections are constantly changing their strength, and they're unconnecting and reconnecting elsewhere." Structural and Functional Neuroplasticity There are two main types of neuroplasticity: structural and functional. Structural plasticity describes the brain's ability to change its physical structure as a result of learning. When you experience something new, your brain physically changes. The more you practice a new skill or revisit a memory, the stronger the connections will become and the easier they will stick in your brain. Functional plasticity, meanwhile, enables the brain to move functions from one area of the brain to another. This is essential for brain injury rehabilitation. Nautilus explains that neural connections are like a forest, with different neural functions fighting for resources, just as trees fight for soil and sunlight. Areas that aren't being used can be stolen by another function. This explains why the loss of one sense can enhance the others. For example, the visual cortex at the back of the brain is normally used for sight. But if a person is blinded, their other senses (such as hearing) will take advantage of the area. So, for example, if a person has a stroke, an area of their brain could be permanently damaged, but there are still healthy neurons in other areas of the brain. Stroke patients can use rehabilitation to retrain their brain by creating new connections in a different, healthy area of the brain. Brain Injury Rehabilitation When the brain is damaged, there are tricks we can do to help develop new connections. According to The Conversation, this can include "environmental enrichment that relies on sensory (visual, auditory, tactile, smell) and motor stimuli." Techniques such as virtual reality, music therapy and imagining physical movements can help to build new connections in areas of the brain that weren't damaged. However, it's important to recognize our limitations. The Conversation points out that neuroplasticity does not mean the brain is infinitely malleable. You can't recycle any part for a different desired function — there are constraints. The area for sensation, for example, can't take over the movement function. That's why some patients with brain damage might feel like they are moving their arm, even if they aren't actually able to move it. Training the Brain We don't all have the same potential for retraining our brains. Neuroplasticity depends on age, the amount of neural damage, rehabilitation treatments, genetics and our environment. As you might expect, younger brains are more malleable than older ones. The good news is, no matter how old you are, your brain will continue to change as you learn. By understanding how our brains work, doctors can better treat patients with cognitive neural brain defects, traumatic brain injuries, strokes, neurodegenerative diseases and other ailments. Plus, we can help ourselves learn things more effectively, so we can develop new skills and habits and continue to exercise our minds as we age.

Our Ever-Changing Brains: The Importance of Neuroplasticity

Does an apple a day keep the doctor away? Advice on healthy eating and weight loss can come from healthcare professionals, well-intentioned parents, exercise fanatics, image-conscious celebrities, and the companies that sell billions of dollars of groceries and nutritional supplements each year. Some of this information is dubious, and a fraction is even harmful. Unfortunately, inaccurate food myths can continue to circulate long after they are debunked by solid science. This can lead to endless anxiety as people engage in what should be an enjoyable daily activity — eating. Here are three common food myths that don't hold up to scrutiny. Myth 1: Organic Produce Is More Nutritious Fruits and vegetables certified as "organic" by the U.S. Department of Agriculture are grown without using synthetic fertilizers or pesticides. This decreases the impact of farming on the environment. It also makes organic food an average of 47% more expensive than conventional food, according to a 2015 study by Consumer Reports. Some health enthusiasts will argue that organic produce tastes better and makes them feel better, but is it actually more nutritious? The research says no. A 2012 study from Stanford University published in the Annals of Internal Medicine found no significant difference in nutrition or health risks between organic produce and conventionally grown produce. Conventional produce contains the same vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, proteins, lipids and other nutrients as organic produce. A 2017 study by the Centers for Disease Control found that only 10% of U.S. adults eat the recommended amount of fruits and vegetables. Since a healthy diet reduces the risk of chronic disease, you should just enjoy your fruits and veggies without worrying about the "organic" label. So, does an apple a day keep the doctor away? It can certainly help, whether or not the apple is "organic." Myth 2: Fresh Produce Is More Nutritious Than Frozen, Canned or Cooked A fresh salad with garden greens is often presented as an ideal way to eat veggies, while the cafeteria staples of boiled peas and canned peaches are often frowned upon as less nutritious options. So, is fresh produce actually better for you than frozen, canned or cooked produce? Often, no. According to a 2016 study in the Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, fresh produce loses nutrients over time — as it travels from farm to market, and perhaps sits in the refrigerator for a few days. To survive the journey to the customer, fresh produce is frequently picked before it is fully ripe. In contrast, frozen and canned produce is often picked at the peak of ripeness and processed shortly thereafter, which locks in the nutrients. Cooking fruits and vegetables does destroy some heat-sensitive vitamins such as folate and Vitamin C, but it can also unlock other nutrients. A 2008 study from the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry found that cooking carrots increases their nutritional value. In addition, cooking vegetables can often allow you to eat more. A giant bowl of baby spinach can be sauteed into a tasty side dish that is easy to eat and digest. Perhaps most importantly, fresh fruits and veggies aren't always available at an affordable price. They can also go bad in a few days or weeks, and people don't always have time to prepare them. Frozen and canned produce provides a convenient, cost-effective, and reliable way to incorporate fruits and veggies into every meal. Myth 3: Low-Fat or Fat-Free Is Always Healthier Fat has been unfairly maligned. We now know that there are "good fats" and "bad fats," but many people still associate eating fats with weight gain. When faced with a crowded grocery store shelf, many consumers reach for the packages labeled "low-fat" or "fat-free," but these aren't always the healthiest options. There are three basic kinds of fats: unsaturated fats, saturated fats and trans fats. According to the Harvard School of Public Health, unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are abundant in olive oil, canola oil, avocados, nuts and fish. Unsaturated fats are beneficial fats that can improve cholesterol levels and protect against heart disease. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature. In the U.S., common sources of saturated fat are cheese, milk, butter, dairy desserts and meat products including sausage, bacon and beef. The 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends consuming less than 10% of your daily calories from saturated fats. Trans fats are artificially manufactured from vegetable oils and are used in margarine, shortening and fry oil. It was once thought that trans fats were healthier than saturated animal fats. However, because trans fats rarely occur in nature, the human body is poorly equipped to digest them. Trans fats can build up in the arteries and contribute to heart disease, so the current recommendation is to avoid trans fats as much as possible. As you can see, scientists and medical professionals have an incomplete understanding of how the body responds to different diets, which is an extraordinarily complex topic. New research occasionally changes our understanding and leads to altered guidelines. We now have a better understanding of the benefits of unsaturated fats, but we don't fully understand the benefits and risks associated with saturated fats.  Low-fat and fat-free foods are not always the healthier choice. Some foods are naturally fat-free and healthy, including most fruits and vegetables. In other cases, saturated fat can easily be reduced to make food healthier, such as by choosing lean cuts of meat. Surprisingly, the benefits of low-fat milk, cheese and yogurt are now being reconsidered, as Healthline explains. Other foods must be heavily modified in order to reduce fat. In many cases, additional sugar is added to compensate for the flavor of the missing fat. A 2015 study in the journal Appetite found that most "low-fat" food products contain the same number of calories as "regular-fat" versions. Low-fat granola, cereal bars and baked goods often contain excessive sugar. Even worse are fat-free Italian dressing and reduced-fat peanut butter, which remove healthy olive oil or peanut oil and replace it with sugar and additives. Most nutrition experts recommend avoiding artificially fat-free foods and choosing whole foods with healthy fats, such as nuts. Bon appé©tit! Are you interested in science and innovation? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

Food Myths That Complicate Healthy Eating

If the idea of body composting makes you squeamish, you're not alone. We don't like to think about death, especially when it comes to the physical aspect of what happens to our bodies after we die. But burial and cremation, our standard methods of disposing of human remains, aren't great for the environment.  Enter the sustainable death movement. People are searching for ways to dispose of bodies with respect and dignity — without harming the planet in the process.  Ashes to Ashes, Dust to Dust  While we may be more familiar with traditional funeral practices, embalming and cremation are simply not environmentally friendly. These methods consume natural resources and pollute the Earth. According to Science, cemeteries take up about 500 square kilometers in the United States, while embalming consumes millions of liters of chemicals each year. Cremation is often seen as the less expensive and more environmentally friendly option, but the process consumes natural gas and produces greenhouse emissions.  In May 2020, Washington will become the first state to legalize natural organic reduction, in other words, body composting.  "With natural organic reduction, the process is so complete that you're just left with plain old soil" says Jamie Pedersen, the Washington state senator who sponsored the bill.  The bill also included another option called alkaline hydrolysis or resomation, which is a water-based method of reducing a body to dust. This method has been used in at least 19 other states since the 1990s and in some parts of the United Kingdom, according to The Guardian. In this method, a body is placed into a container of warm water with a base such as lye, and the liquid, heat and pressure reduce the body to dust.  Other earth-friendly options include more natural burials, such as skipping the embalming fluids and burying the body in a basic casket made from biodegradable materials. In 2019, actor Luke Perry's body was laid to rest wearing a special suit designed to aid in composting. The New Yorker reports that the burial suit was made of "mushrooms and other microorganisms that help decompose the body, transfer nutrients to plants, and neutralize toxins."  How Body Composting Works  Katrina Spade, the founder and C.E.O. of a Seattle-based startup called Recompose approached Pedersen about legalizing body composting. The process is designed to accelerate what naturally happens to bodies after we die, decomposition. By creating conditions that allow microorganisms to thrive, Recompose can turn a body into soil in 30 days.  "My main concern was, if you permit something different, that isn't what we've always done, do we have any assurance that there's no potential for spread of disease," Pedersen says.  He explains that a study at Washington State University (WSU) that was testing options for body composting concluded that "the body is reduced to soil that was indistinguishable from gardening soil with no possibility of transmission of disease."  The soil also meets safety standards set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for such contaminants as heavy metals, according to Science.  It turns out that body composting is so safe and efficient that it's a widely-accepted practice in agriculture.  "It's quite common across the whole country, and it's often the preferred recommendation for the industry," says Thomas Bass, a sustainable agriculture researcher and educator at Montana State University.  As part of his job, Bass advises farmers on what to do in the case of disease, such as bird flu. Often, he says, composting is the best option for pathogen reduction because the natural heat from microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi kill the virus during the decomposition process.  When farms deal with animal deaths, Bass says that burying the bodies is not ideal because this takes up precious land on the farm and delays the natural decomposition process.  "They don't break down once buried," he says. He adds, "[the body] sort of just becomes entombed in an environment without oxygen."  Bass co-authored a report on livestock mortality composting published by Montana State University. In the report, the authors explain that farmers can consider composting to be the practice of farming beneficial microorganisms. In agriculture, the process is simple. You need a nutrient source (the body), plus a little bit of nitrogen (from something green) and lots of carbon (from something bulky such as woodchips or cornstalks). Then, make sure to encourage oxygen flow by allowing proper airflow and turning the compost at certain intervals. Under these conditions, Bass explains, microorganisms reduce the waste material while giving off heat that raises the temperature to a range that is high enough to kill many pathogens.  "It's really about using these beneficial microbes to digest the nutrient-rich carcass down to fundamental elements and compounds," Bass explains. "It's 'ashes to ashes, dust to dust,' and you're accelerating it through the composting microbes."  According to WBUR, Recompose uses a similar process for human bodies. The body is placed into a container with a carbon- and a nitrogen-heavy mixture of wood chips, alfalfa, and straw. A fan system provides air to encourage microbial growth. Within a month, the body breaks down into two wheelbarrows full of soil.  Respectful Sustainable Death Practices  Is composting human bodies different from animals?  "The big reveal is, technically it is no different. It's just making sure that you would manage certain social-cultural expectations in the process," explains Bass.  Body composting may technically be an ideal way to dispose of a body, but translating this common agricultural practice to humans is more complicated. There are a variety of funeral traditions around the world, ranging from mummification to burial, cremation and more sustainable options. Now, natural organic reduction, also known as composting, is another option to consider.  Pedersen says, "It's an intensely personal issue that gets to the core of what it means to be a human being."  Whether the end result is a box containing an embalmed body, an urn of ashes or a wheelbarrow of soil, loved ones can honor the deceased person in different ways. Pedersen says that during the legalization process, the most compelling testimony came from the friend of a terminal cancer patient who had volunteered to be part of the body composting study at WSU.  "She was a huge environmentalist and she was just tortured by the idea that her final act on the earth was either going to have to be being buried with all these chemicals and then permanently taking up a place on earth or being cremated and using all of this energy to burn up her remains," says Pedersen.  He says that the woman's friend explained that it was a huge psychological comfort for her to know that by participating in the study, she was helping to pave the path for other people to follow sustainable death practices.  "Family and friends spread her soil out in her garden with all her flowers and it was, for them, a really beautiful sort of circle," Pedersen says. "She was literally becoming a part of the plants that she loved."  

Body Composting Is the Newest Sustainable Death Practice

We're stressed — and it's getting worse. According to the Stress in Americaâ„¢ 2020 report, 67% of adults have experienced increased stress over the last year, with 49% saying their behavior has been negatively affected. And while the report highlights the considerable impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, it also points to the compounding effect of "societal stressors that have been pervasive in previous years," noting that many Americans now report stress-related symptoms such as increased bodily tension, reduced patience with family members and unexpected mood swings. There's no quick fix to this problem. Even an end to pandemic pressures won't prompt an immediate return to normalcy, and concerns around issues such as rising debt load, climate change and affordable health care will remain long after the "next normal" gets off the ground. But it's not all bad news. Recent advancements in wearable device development may offer new ways to mitigate stress, improve focus and manage mental health. Here's a look at the potential future of wearable technology — and why it may all be in your head. The 10% Solution Despite repeated and thorough debunking, the myth that human beings only use 10% of brains remains pervasive. As Psychological Science notes, this mental misunderstanding may trace its origins to a statement made by William James in 1907. "Most of us feel as if we lived habitually with a sort of cloud weighing on us," James wrote, "below our highest notch of clearness in discernment, sureness in reasoning or firmness in deciding. Compared with what we ought to be, we are only half-awake. Our fires are damped, our drafts are checked. We are making use of only a small part of our possible mental and physical resources." Despite its development into a defense of hidden human potential, the statement itself rings true — as the pressures of daily life and work continue to ramp up, many people feel they're not making the best use of mental resources. Even more worrisome? For almost half of all adults, these challenges eventually manifest as mental illness. Effective treatment for these issues is unfortunately hit or miss — there's still significant stigma attached to many mental illnesses, and according to the World Health Organization (WHO), 40% of countries worldwide have no mental health policies in place. The result? Finding help for everything from everyday stress to more serious mental issues is no easy task — but wearables may offer a workaround. What's New in Wearable, Mental Machinery? In much the same way that fitness and health wearables have captured consumer interest in recent years with diversified offerings capable of tracking steps, monitoring heart rates and even alerting physicians to potential problems, there's now significant movement in the mental wearable device market. And while many of these technologies are still in their infancy, they promise a host of possibilities that could help humans better manage their mental health. Here are some of those interesting and innovative approaches. Focused Feedback Tools such as Foci are designed to capture breathing signals with a small device kept close to the abdomen. In theory, even slight alterations in air intake and outflow can indicate changing stress levels, which are represented by color-changing orbs in Foci's mobile app. Lose focus, and the orbs change color, even as the app "nudges" users to become more focused, both by automatically switching smartphones into do-not-disturb mode (if desired) and tracking focus patterns over time. Reviews are mixed — positioning and pairing the device correctly can be challenging — but this focused feedback idea has potential. Medication Monitoring There's also a push to monitor medication intake for patients who require it. Devices such as Abilify MyCite use a combination of sensor-equipped pills and smart patches worn on the torso to confirm when medication is taken as prescribed, which in turn may help patients stay on track and reduce the risk of severe schizophrenia or bipolar disorder episodes. De-Stressing Stimulation Other wearable solutions, such as TouchPoint, look to mitigate anxiety by providing tactile, bilateral alternating stimulation — buzzing or pulsing stimuli that occur in a left-right pattern — using devices worn on the wrists or carried in pockets. While there is some evidence for the efficacy of bilateral alternating stimulation for stress management, more research is needed on the effect at scale. Care Connections At Texas A&M, researchers are developing a continuous monitoring tool that collects physical data, such as heart rates, along with self-reported information about students' mental states to connect users with relevant mental health services such as mindfulness exercises, self-assessments and virtual counseling sessions. Emotional Engagement Work from the University of Calgary is looking to solve challenges around emotional stress, such as feelings of being lonely or isolated. Art student Alex Mai develop a "loneliness pillow," which uses heating pads and pressurized air to create a large-scale wearable capable of simulating a human hug. Meditation Management Mindful meditation is also on the horizon for mental health wearables. Solutions such as Muse leverage smart headbands capable of tracking brain signals that are then interpreted and applied to meditation sessions. If users are focused, they hear calm and soothing winds while they meditate. If they become stressed or distracted, wind speed and intensity will increase. Building a Better Brain The future of wearable technology exists at the intersection of another intellectual effort — the quest to develop artificial neural networks capable of mimicking human mental frameworks. Work in both machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) has already produced substantive results with the creation of ML algorithms that can "learn" over time given a large enough data input, and AI tools that are very, very good at very specific tasks. The challenge is matching the more generalized ability of human minds to connect multiple, loosely linked constructs into a cohesive whole. But the work on wearable devices designed to help manage mental stress and mitigate the risk of serious outcomes may offer a way to bridge the gap between artificial and biological systems at scale. For example, a device designed to help humans manage stress based on conditional self-reporting might be repurposed to evaluate the cognitive ability of AI tools. Rather than waiting for these neural networks to make an obvious mistake that requires human intervention, the application of mental health models could be used to proactively detect decision-making issues. And this street runs both ways. As AI tools become more adept at categorizing and connecting the signs and symptoms of mental illness, the infrastructure of wearable devices will improve, paving the way for technologies capable of capturing and correlating individual behavior patterns. This can help wearables better detect signs of impending stress and offer users effective mitigation strategies ASAP. Ultimately, work on wearables is about building better brains — both human and machine — to improve the efficacy and stability of both. Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are, too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

The Future of Wearable Technology? It's All in Your Head

These days, robot design is less about the hardware and more about developing algorithms. It is becoming a powerful tool in healthcare technology to positively impact the lives of people with disabilities. From precise technology to help blind children see again to mind-controlled mechanical limbs and wearable technology, machines are improving the quality of life and health outcomes for people. However, it's not just a one-way relationship. People with disabilities are contributing to research and design for countless technology advances. Computer Vision Autonomous vehicles, industrial robots and robotic vacuum cleaners all rely on computer vision. This has been a long-standing challenge in the scientific community. According to Engadget, computers can now match or exceed human sight, but they still require intense training to understand the images they see. A robot isn't just a high-resolution camera. In order to truly have "sight," both robots and humans need to understand the pictures they see. If robots have a bunch of high-resolution images, but they can't make sense of them, the images are useless. MIT professor Dr. Pawan Sinha developed a new machine learning technique that was inspired by his work with blind children in India. Sinha started Project Prakash, a charity that provides eye surgery to children with treatable conditions such as congenital cataracts. Restoring sight to children with cataracts is more complicated than older patients because of brain development. Healthy babies are born with blurry vision, which gradually improves as they age. Fuzzy vision sounds like a problem, but it is actually crucial to babies' cognitive development. Sinha's theory is that that blurry vision helps babies focus on the big picture without getting overwhelmed by small details while their minds are busy developing. He applied this concept to artificial intelligence by integrating blurry imagery into an artificial intelligence system to help it gradually understand high-resolution images. Machine Learning Machine learning helps computers analyze data and learn what to do, so that they don't have to be programmed to perform each task. This branch of artificial intelligence is helping give people with disabilities more independence. "Machine learning is giving people like me that need accommodation in some situations the same independence as others," Liat Kaver, a product manager at YouTube who is deaf, told MIT Technology Review. The latest machine learning algorithms can understand images, sounds and language. This software is being used to improve healthcare technology for people with disabilities like deafness or autism. Closed captioning, for example, helps convey speed and sounds on TV shows and videos. YouTube uses speech-to-text software to automatically transcribe videos. But they also take it a step further by using algorithms that indicate additional sounds, such as applause, laughter and music. Image Recognition Software Accessibility used to mean providing ramps, wide doors and other physical accommodations. Today, accessibility also includes digital spaces. People with disabilities face challenges in their everyday lives that give them a different perspective on new technology. According to MIT Technology Review, Austin Lubetkin developed a navigation app for people with autism. Lubetkin used image-recognition technology from startup Clarifai to prototype an app that provides directions in the form of landmarks. Lubetkin has autism spectrum disorder, and he was inspired to create the app because of his personal experience with struggling to navigate, a common challenge in the autism community. He found it difficult to interpret the text and abstract images from conventional apps, so he used the image recognition software to add landmarks to navigation software. "Honestly, AI can level the playing field," Lubetkin said. Disability Robot Design A group of roboticists at Georgia Tech are researching ways to make robot control more seamless and accessible by developing new interfaces that allow people to control complex robots with only a single-button mouse, says IEEE Spectrum. The researchers are working with Henry Evans, who is almost completely paralyzed and unable to speak, due to a stroke. Through the use of a robot, he is able to do everyday tasks, like scratching his head or wiping his mouth. The robot's aid allows him to remain comfortable in bed without asking a human for help. According to IEEE Spectrum, the roboticists hadn't anticipated the disability robot to have this result. It's aid to Evans was the most successful job task the robot completed, in terms of performance and user satisfaction, since "the deployed research system provided a clear, consistent benefit to the user and reduced the need for caregiver assistance during these times." A Mutually Beneficial Relationship Prosthetic limbs, robotic exoskeletons, assistant robots and brain-to-machine interfaces are incredible tools that can help people with disabilities in many different ways. While these assistive technologies are improving, people with disabilities are also helping scientists to more precisely understand how to teach machines to learn, which is helping improve their lives and robot design.

Healthcare Technology: Robot Design Helps People With Disabilities

Even if you're a spontaneous traveler, getting ready for a trip requires planning. That's the fun part. Just don't forget about your health; with global alerts such as the Zika outbreak making headlines, it's wise to pay attention. Mosquito repellent — check; long sleeved shirts, long pants, bed net — check.What about drones and genetic modification in warding off Zika-carrying mosquitoes? Or drilling down into the virus genome for answers? With companies like Northrop Grumman supporting clinical research data hubs, high technology has indeed entered the battle against the outbreak ... but let's start from the beginning.What Is Zika?Zika virus (ZIKV), an arbovirus (arthropod-borne) transmitted by primary vector, the Aedes species of mosquitoes, was first discovered in monkeys in Uganda in 1947. Scientists realized it was a zoonosis when it moved into humans a few years later. Since then, evolution through viral mutation has enhanced ZIKV's ability to spread; infection usually causes a low-grade fever with aches and a rash that decline within a week.While not dangerous for most, infection during pregnancy can cause brain damage in the developing fetus. For this reason, the World Health Organization (WHO) released a Public Health Emergency of International Concern alert for the Zika outbreak in February this year. More recently, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued its first domestic travel advisory for an area near Miami. Confirmation of ZIKV sexual transmission in people also came this summer.What Makes Zika Hard to Contain?Human-to-human transmission and its mild presentation mean that the Zika outbreak is hard to combat. Additionally, more international travel increases the risk of Zika and similar diseases such as dengue, Ebola and SARS spreading. Indeed, a consensus statement issued by the INDUSEM joint working group on the Zika outbreak states: "The first public health approach is the incorporation of strategies that acknowledge the recent 'urbanization' of zoonotic diseases secondary to population expansion, globalization of trade, and increased ease of travel ..." As infected travelers return home, they unwittingly spread the disease to intimate partners, and also into local mosquito populations.Currently there is no specific treatment and no effective vaccine. Although traditional measures for host and vector/reservoir populations do work to a degree — e.g. pesticide spraying, environmental modification to mosquito habitats, personal protection and travel advisories — scientists are developing new tools for greater precision in both public health management and vector control.High-Tech Pre-emptive StrikesHowever, instead of waiting for disease, why not take to the air to spot the pathogen first in the mosquito vector populations? Environmental monitoring traditionally involves laborious trap-and-test programs; however, Project Premonition takes a high-tech step forward deploying smart robotic insect traps equipped with biosensors that monitor wing movements. The traps get smarter over time with machine learning to recognize and capture only the mosquitoes. Furthermore, rapid wireless data-uploads to the cloud enable instant access. Once back in the lab and without the traditional insect soup to sift through, more algorithms help researchers spot disease outbreaks faster from mosquito pathogen detection. The next step is drone technology as eyes-in-the-sky to identify mosquito hot spots and then place the traps remotely.Other researchers look to mosquito breeding for answers. As a spin-off from dengue research, scientists found that eggs laid by females mated to males infected with Wolbachia — intracellular bacteria that attack only arthropods — do not hatch. Moreover, infection persists and reduces ZIKV transmission — a useful side effect since it's the females that bite!Genetic modification is another approach that manipulates male reproduction. One biotech project uses recombinant DNA technology to create a heritable lethal gene that male mosquitoes pass on during mating. In the lab, simple addition of tetracycline antibiotic to mosquito food keeps this gene in check; however, without it in the wild, the gene activates. Offspring larvae die quickly as do the male carriers.Flooding an area with modified insects could out-compete wild males for effective population control without using pesticides. Moreover, selecting only males avoids the irritation of releasing blood-hungry females.Big Data to the RescueAlthough software and virology may seem unrelated, software engineers and communications specialists play vital roles in the fight against Zika virus. Northrop Grumman teams are actively engaged in supporting CDC Zika initiatives, from virus tracking applications to a pregnancy database. Software programming expertise connects remote CDC agencies and departments so they can 'talk' to each other, delivering data efficiently to make a difference.Clinical research teams hunting for effective treatments often use databases such as those provided by the Bioinformatics Resource Centers for Infectious Diseases run by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). The Virus Pathogen Resource (ViPR) centralizes valuable information as a comprehensive resource for translating basic research into effective drugs, vaccines and diagnostic tests. Supported by informatics technology and architecture from Northrop Grumman, ViPR collects ongoing genomic research on the Zika virus, giving researchers access to data and tools. Information from bioinformatics support hubs like this enables more rapid develop of new strategies such as DNA-based vaccines, for example.Early-warning systems, another application for robust information technology integration, allows officials to use public health surveillance to spot disease moving into a new area. Currently, the CDC compiles ZIKV case numbers filed with ArboNET, using source of infection data to show when local mosquito control is needed. From here, IT interfaces and networks mean that when a Zika-infected mosquito is picked up by environmental monitoring, or a patient checks in at a rural hospital, the IT pipes hum with data reaching out to warn pregnant women and their caregivers. Northrop Grumman support services and software programming mean that no information falls through the cracks.Newer strategies in development may soon replace traditional methods to halt the Zika outbreak — but for now, just don't forget the mosquito repellent. Bon voyage!If you're a software engineer, learn about the amazing roles you can play as part of Northrop Grumman's health IT team.

Big Data, Drones and Other High-Tech Tools to Fight the Zika Outbreak

In March 2020, as the number of COVID-19 cases in the United States began to swell, hospitals put out a desperate call for help. They needed personal protective equipment — and they needed it fast. The Northrop Grumman FabLabs community swung into action. These fabrication laboratories, which opened in 2014 in the spirit of the maker movement, provide innovation space for company employees to pursue new ideas and test out potential customer solutions. But they're also ideal spaces to respond quickly to urgent manufacturing needs. Already equipped with a range of industrial tools and equipment, including 3D printers, laser cutters, metal and woodworking machines and even sewing machines, these labs don't have to undergo a major facility transformation like traditional factories might in order to meet a demand — at least, not in the conventional sense. Within weeks, six Northrop Grumman FabLabs located in California and Florida were taking an all-hands-on-deck approach. They cranked out more than 10,000 face shields in two months for dozens of hospitals — with some labs working 24/7. The effort both helped fulfill the immediate need for critical medical supplies and demonstrated that even a large company can become more agile and break through the usual bureaucracies to respond quickly to community needs and innovate to solve problems. "It was very grassroots, very collaborative," says Anne Stockdale, an engineer and manager at Northrop Grumman, who volunteered to coordinate the multi-lab effort. Stepping Up It began with a simple request. A nurse working in an intensive care unit asked her friend Daniel Hubert, a Northrop Grumman design engineer in Melbourne, Florida, if he could fabricate a face shield for her. Hubert researched designs approved by the National Institutes of Health and found a simple pattern made from a 3D-printed headband and a sheet of clear transparency paper typically used for overhead projectors. He prototyped the first one, and once the hospital approved, the entire 85-person staff of the ICU requested one. Undaunted, he recruited fellow engineers from Northrop Grumman to assist. In three days, they printed 150 face shields. It was clear by then that Northrop Grumman FabLabs could play a huge role. Tony Long, manager, Project Management, and FabLab lead in Redondo Beach, California, put out a company-wide call for volunteers. Stockdale, who has a materials and manufacturing background, stepped in to help coordinate production and distribution. Each day, all employees involved in the effort participated in a quick conference call to report on their progress, discuss materials needs and coordinate fixes on any equipment problems. Stockdale kept the meetings short. One slide listed each FabLab and what it needed to execute that day. Red, yellow, green or blue dots indicated their status. Red could mean a printer was down, yellow might mean materials were on the way, green might mean an order was ready but they needed a shipping address, blue meant no problems at all. "It was a quick way to get everybody on the same page and figure out who needed help as quickly as possible," says Stockdale. Crowdsourcing led to quick solutions, whether technical, logistical or material. Around the country, dozens of employees pitched in. Charlie Mann, a computer systems analyst in Rolling Meadows, Illinois, who had seven 3D printers in his home, produced dozens of shields in just a few weeks. CJ Nesbitt, an engineering manager in San Diego, California, also enlisted his own 3D printer as well as six others at the Northrop Grumman's San Diego FabLab. His group made more than 5,500 face shields for volunteer medical responders as well as healthcare workers in the area. Employees outside the FabLabs group got into the act as well. Northrop Grumman's Additive Manufacturing group, for instance, produced parts that were then sent to one of the FabLabs, where they were added it to the assembly line and distribution. Even some office administrators stepped up to the task. As production increased, transparency sheets, which were much more popular three decades ago, were suddenly in short supply. Stockdale already had global supply chain buyers from the company periodically checking office supply stores for this item, but she put out a request to admins asking them to check their office stock. "Sure enough, they found them in cabinets and drawers, where they'd probably been since the 1990s," says Stockdale. Retooling Historically, Americans have done well taking an all-hands-on-deck approach to solving national crises. Perhaps the best examples came during World War II, when dozens of manufacturing companies each underwent a facility transformation to produce vehicles, equipment, ammunition and more for the battlefield. According to Military.com, General Motors started making B24 bomber engines in its Buick factory. Fisher Body, which made auto bodies, began assembling the M-4 "Sherman" tank. Chrysler and Packard shifted some of their production to make tanks and aircraft engines. Oldsmobile started manufacturing artillery ammunition. During the COVID-19 crisis, Northrop Grumman FabLabs had to retool — but not in the conventional sense. These innovation spaces, designed specifically for prototyping, experimenting and making one-off gadgets, aren't intended to resemble factories. There are no assembly lines, and products are not made using methods to repeat and reproduce. "They're playgrounds for engineers," says Stockdale. In order to meet the demand for personal protective gear, the FabLabs not only turned into factories, they almost turned into businesses. They had to take customer orders and confirm that they could fulfill them. They had to source materials, some of which were not always easy to procure. They had to output parts according to an approved design and institute quality controls. They had to reproduce the items as quickly as possible over multi-shift operations. They had to synchronize distribution. They had to overcome design changes, meet legal requirements and build partnerships across networks they may not have encountered before. "How quickly the teams were able to set up and react to create face shields and get everything operational speaks volumes about Northrop Grumman employees," says Stockdale. In the end, Northrop Grumman FabLabs delivered about 16,700 face shields to healthcare workers in Arizona, California, Florida, New York, New Jersey, Texas and Virginia. They also worked with the Federal Emergency Management Agency to send surplus equipment to hospitals experiencing critical needs. Northrop Grumman FabLabs will be ready to rise to the challenge, should a need arise again.  

Engineering Maker Spaces Respond to COVID-19

Since none of us walks around with a ticking clock showing how long we have left to walk the planet (thanks for the illustration, Nickelback), death prediction has always been an inexact science. Scientists, clinicians and insurance agents remain curious about how to measure mortality (apart from accidental death). It's been a fascination since early history, but now, research is showing some concrete answers. In a 2021 study published in Nature, a team of researchers in Iceland published a large-scale study looking at plasma proteins in 22,913 Icelanders. Over an average follow-up of around 13.7 years, the team found that their proposed predictor could identify those at most risk of pending death. They suggest that predicting the amount of time we have till death from plasma protein levels might be a useful tool for assessing general health as well as measuring mortality.Your Proteome Tells a TaleThe researchers in the Nature study used an analysis technology called SOMAmer-Based Multiplex Proteomics. According to a 2011 Public Library of Science paper, the method uses highly specific DNA-based capture reagents to capture multiple plasma proteins for measurement. These synthetic protein capture reagents are so sensitive that it is possible to combine them to capture multiple proteins within a single assay. This makes them ideal for populations studies involving large numbers of both people and analytes, as seen in the Icelandic study.The research team used this kind of large-scale proteomic data set approach to measure levels of 4,684 plasma proteins collected from 22,913 Icelanders. According to a PR Newswire press release, over the course of the study, the team monitored health in participants and saw that more than 7,000 died.When the scientists started crunching numbers in their protein database to see if the results showed how to measure mortality, they found that their prediction algorithm not only worked for death prediction but also gave a good assessment of general health. The press release for the study describes this as a "predictor of how much is left of the life of a person."Death Prediction ToolsAs well as using proteins circulating in your bloodstream, researchers have also discovered other tools to measure mortality. These are usually based on how cells age and the processes that they go through.One tool uses MRI to directly image structures within the brain. This neuroimaging approach, described in a 2017 Nature paper, involves combining machine learning with imaging data to spot how structures within a brain age and in turn, predict mortality.Cell age can also be measured by looking at telomere length. These structures are the genetic end caps to chromosomes that protect DNA during replication, and they are lost with aging. Once too short, DNA replication stops, and so does the cell.Another technique, known as the epigenetic clock, uses a measure of methylation and demethylation across regions of a person's DNA to measure aging. Methyl groups on DNA are important as they either switch on or turn off expression of genes as an epigenetic regulator of genetic expression. The rate of accumulation or disappearance of these chemical groups from regions of the genetic code seem to show an organism's age with certain accuracy. This approach has also been used to compare dog aging with their human owners.Why Is Death Prediction Useful, and Why Is It Dangerous?Aside from general morbid curiosity, why would knowing how to measure mortality be of benefit?In clinical settings, especially palliative care and preparation for end of life, knowing how long someone will live for can be extremely useful in setting out treatment and other care plans. The National Institute for Health and Care Research notes that being able to plan for the remaining days, weeks or months can help to maximize quality of life in the final stages.Quality of life is an important parameter for assessments beyond clinical care; QALYs or quality-adjusted life years give a numerical basis to determining the value of health outcomes. They can be used to determine most effective treatments by showing how changes drive impact. However, they can also be discriminatory.The flip side to QALYs are DALYs: disability-adjusted life years. These show the shortening of life due to disability or chronic illness. The World Health Organization describes these as "a time-based measure that combines years of life lost due to premature mortality (YLLs) and years of life lost due to time lived in states of less than full health, or years of healthy life lost due to disability." As death prediction tools, DALYs show how much shorter life is with a disability. Unfortunately, this also perpetuates an ableist view of life in that anything other than full health is a life less valuable.During the recent SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, where rapid acceleration in case numbers frequently overwhelmed hospital capacity, many clinical centers formulated triage policies to try to optimize treatment. These were usually based around ventilator access and tried to guide decisions on who would best benefit from this treatment and survive.A 2020 Forbes article described how assessing disabled people as living less of a life leads to clinical discrimination. Treatment triage policies based on how to measure mortality or DALYs could be used to deny ventilator access, for example, to people with Down Syndrome, developmental conditions such as autism, muscular dystrophy or mental impairments.An article in The Atlantic also noted the potential for clinical discrimination, that with spread of the disease overwhelming clinical facilities, rationing treatment in the emergency could place certain groups at the back of the queue.All this leads to questioning how being able to measure mortality might be used in the future; in less critical times, could death prediction also be used to assess viability and therefore limit access to treatment? Both the benefits and consequences will need to be weighed for the best use of such measurements.Are you interested in all things related to technology? We are too. Check out Northrop Grumman career opportunities to see how you can participate in this fascinating time of discovery.

How Will Death Prediction Technology Impact Life?

Alongside new cancer treatments come common side effects or conditions that may pop up, such as lymphedema. The lymphatic system doesn't get much attention until it stops working properly. As many breast cancer patients have learned, the lymph nodes that reside in your armpits are essential for draining fluid from your arms. If these lymph nodes are damaged during medical treatment or removed to prevent the spread of cancer, fluid can accumulate and lead to painful swelling in one or both arms.But now, a research group from the University of Waterloo in Canada has used microfluidics to develop a major improvement in lymphedema treatment, as reported in the journal Microfluidics.Emerging Medical Technologies Treat LymphedemaLymphedema affects roughly 30% of women who are treated for breast cancer, according to a report in the Journal of Clinical Oncology. Standard treatment for lymphedema includes massaging the affected limb — using a squeezing and dragging motion — to push fluid from the extremities (e.g. fingers) toward the torso (e.g. shoulder). This is often followed by wearing a compression sleeve to prevent additional swelling. One advantage of a compression sleeve is that it can easily be worn for long periods of time without interfering with daily activities.In contrast, the massage technique for treating lymphedema is labor-intensive and difficult to perform on oneself. You can achieve the same general effect with an intermittent pneumatic compression (IPC) device. This device is somewhat similar to the blood pressure cuff fastened around a patient's arm at the beginning of nearly every doctor's visit. The blood pressure cuff is an air bladder that fills with air up to a certain pressure, then deflates. For an IPC device, the patient wears a long sleeve that contains perhaps 16 air bladders lined up in a row. The air bladder around the hand inflates first, followed by the air bladder around the wrist, and so on until all the air bladders have inflated to push fluid from the hand toward the shoulder. The air bladders then deflate, and the process is repeated.The problem with existing IPC devices is that they can be bulky, heavy and expensive (some are more than $1000), and need to be plugged into a wall. This is far from ideal for the many patients who need extensive therapy. More portable systems are available at a lower price (around $300), but are less effective. These more affordable systems use electromechanical solenoid valves to control the air bladders. The most effective systems have many air bladders — which require many solenoid valves — which means more expense, more weight and more energy consumption.Microfluidics Shrink the ProblemThe researchers at the University of Waterloo sought to develop a more effective, affordable and portable pneumatic compression sleeve. The key was to replace the solenoid valves with a microfluidic chip. The chip was created with 3D printing technology, and the "fluid" is air. Each microfluidic chip has 16 fluid channels, or tubes of specific diameters, that control eight air bladders. Each air bladder has a channel that controls inflation and a channel that controls deflation.The inflation channels vary in cross-sectional area from 0.04 mm2 to 1 mm2, which controls how quickly each bladder fills with air. All the deflation channels are the same size, so deflation is simultaneous. The microfluidic chip has no moving parts, and requires just two miniature solenoid valves — one for the inflation channels and one for the deflation channels. The small size means that the device can be run on a 3.7-volt lithium-ion battery, and the entire control unit weighs less than a typical smart phone.The compression sleeve prototype included 8 air bladders, and was tested on a 3D printed forearm. The testing team placed a sensor between the sleeve and a mock forearm. From there, they measured and optimized the pressure to encourage fluid movement. The researchers intend to develop a commercially viable product, and are moving toward patient testing. The microfluidic chip can be scaled up to control 16 air bladders, which would produce a full-arm sleeve similar to what is commercially available for plug-in IPC devices. Because of the small, inexpensive components, the device would likely cost hundreds of dollars instead of thousands.Major Improvement to TherapyThis effective and portable pneumatic sleeve isn't quite a new cancer treatment, but it is a significant contribution to the emerging medical technologies that are rapidly improving patient treatment and quality of life. According to StatPearls, lymphedema affects about 1 in 1,000 Americans. While the most common cause is breast cancer treatment, lymphedema in the arms or legs can be caused by infection, trauma, radiation and other medical treatments.The underlying design of the microfluidic chip can be extended to other applications. Most obvious would be compression sleeves for lymphedema in the legs, but another possibility is prosthetics for lower leg amputees. Legs naturally swell and shrink during daily activities, which causes discomfort and friction for amputees wearing prosthetics. A balloon system could inflate or deflate on demand, making prosthetics more comfortable to wear.

Microfluidics Provide New Cancer Treatment for Combatting Common Side Effect

The United Network for Organ Sharing reported that as of Sept. 24, 2018, nearly 4,000 people in the U.S. were waiting to receive a heart transplant. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services data, however, indicates that a typical year produces fewer than 3,000 human hearts from deceased donors, a trend driven largely by medical advances, increased life expectancy and safer automobiles. As a result, you can expect to wait up to two years to get a real, slightly used donor heart. For patients who can't wait that long, artificial hearts offer a bridge — typically a year or less — to a more permanent heart transplant. A Longer Life Option Dr. Peter DeSilva, a board-certified physician in Rancho Santa Margarita, California, and Steve Smith, a biomechanical engineer specializing in pump technology, have a better idea. As co-founders of California Cardiac Solutions, Inc., they are developing an artificial heart that they believe will offer patients a more reliable, more permanent alternative to a heart transplant. "Early artificial hearts relied on a flexible diaphragm or valves — materials that move back and forth — to simulate the pumping action of the human heart and create what we experience as a pulse," explained Smith. "Unfortunately these materials are precisely what wears out. Imagine bending a sheet of cardboard back and forth 10,000 times per day, and you'll see why those early hearts had a limited lifetime." By contrast, Smith's and DeSilva's new Freedom Heartâ„¢ has almost no moving parts. Made from titanium and other biocompatible materials, it is a four-chamber, fully implantable, form-fit-function replacement for the human heart. And it's designed to last 15 years or more. Technology Fly Over The heart pump technology was inspired by work that Smith did earlier in his career as a subcontractor to Northrop Grumman, the developer of the U.S. Air Force's B-2 stealth bomber. The contractor asked Smith's company, Fluidic Systems, to develop a pump that could process radar absorption material sprayed on the B-2. "We needed a pump that could process liquids containing a high concentration of abrasive metal solids without clogging," said Smith. "We had to eliminate all of the valves and moving components that would normally make the pump work." Serendipity A minor fender bender in his wife's Jeep in February 2012 put Smith on a collision course with his future. While visiting the body shop, he noticed the latest copy of Popular Science sitting on a table. The cover featured a photo of an artificial heart and the blurb "Human Engine — the 10,000 RPM, Pulseless Heart." Smith, who had been fascinated with the human heart his whole life, was smitten. He theorized that his B-2 pump design could be modified to work like an artificial heart. Both applications required a minimum number of moving parts and low shear forces, i.e. minimal friction between the pump surfaces and the fluid to avoid damaging the fluid. Smith's personal doctor, DeSilva, confirmed his hunch. The two friends have been collaborating on designs for the Freedom Heart — six generations so far — ever since. Unlike previous artificial hearts, the Freedom Heart is big on redundancy. It features four tiny, independently controlled impeller pumps and dual redundant electronics throughout. The impellers create the flow and pressure required to push blood through the body. "If any component of the heart fails," explained DeSilva, "a bluetooth-enabled chip on the controller boards will place a phone call to the patient and the patient's doctor," providing adequate time to repair the heart. The Road to Clinical Trials DeSilva and Smith have validated the basic design of their heart pump technology with a "bench test" prototype that has been pumping a blood substitute continuously and flawlessly for more than 16 months. They expect to complete assembly of their first implantable prototype this year. Following bench testing, they will move the device to the University of Southern California, where they will test it on animals in collaboration with Dr. Mark Cunningham, a USC heart transplant surgeon, and North American Science Association, a medical research organization. The team hopes to complete the animal studies by late 2019. DeSilva and Smith do not intend, however, to conduct clinical studies on humans. Instead, they hope California Cardiac Solutions will be acquired by a larger medical devices company with the resources to exploit their medical advances, conduct human trials and bring the device to market. Freedom for Heart Patients "Our initial goal was to produce a product that could serve as a bridge to a transplant," said DeSilva. "We believe, however, that the simple, reliable design of the Freedom Heart may allow patients to use it as a permanent heart replacement, avoid the trauma of future heart surgeries, and live a full and productive life. How's that for a great outcome?"

New Artificial Heart Lifts Off With B-2-Inspired Technology

Imagine a paralysis treatment that uses a wireless router device on your brain to move your limbs. That's only a few steps beyond how Cleveland resident Bill Kochevar regained the use of his right hand following a bicycle accident that left him paralyzed from the shoulders down. New Brain Prosthetics Earlier this year, researchers at Case Western Reserve University and Brown University published a study in The Lancet that described the new technology, an example of a neuroprosthetic. Kochevar, 53, had two tiny recording devices — smaller than postage stamps — implanted in the motor cortex region of his brain. These microelectrode arrays, known as a brain—computer interface (BCI), are equipped with dozens of tiny metal probes that can listen to neural activity. This is decoded and transmitted to a network of 36 implanted electrodes in the patient's upper and lower right arm that function like a pacemaker, stimulating the muscles in his hand, shoulder and elbow to restore movement. With the help of a flexible, supportive armrest, Kochevar is now able to grasp and move objects, such as feeding himself and bringing a mug to his lips to drink. The researchers wrote that the study "represents a major advance, with a clear translational path for clinically viable neuroprostheses for restoration of reaching and grasping after paralysis." Cochlear Implants Show the Way Scientists have been working on paralysis treatment technologies for decades, trying everything from motorized leg braces to cellular transplants; BCIs have been helping patients since 1998. The significant feature of the Kochevar experiment is that it bypasses the damaged spinal cord to directly connect the brain with target muscles. According to The Mayo Clinic, the technology isn't unlike cochlear implants, which use an external microphone and transmitter to send radio signals to an implanted unit that can receive them and stimulate electrodes inserted into the cochlea, skipping parts of the middle ear where damage has caused deafness. There are hopes of using similar know-how to treat blindness and even restore memories eroded by Alzheimer's disease. Kochevar's newfound movement is the result of two surgeries, physiological training and a lot of engineering. The patient had to train by first watching a virtual representation of his arm doing certain movements. When he tried moving his arm the same way, the resulting brain activity was recorded. The recording served as the basis for a decoding system that would translate his intentions into commands for his arm electrodes.  Enable targeting cookies to view this content. Wi-Fi for the Body While Kochevar has a wired connection from his brain implants, study coauthor John Donoghue, Ph.D., head of the Wyss Center for Bio and Neuroengineering at Campus Biotech in Geneva, Switzerland, is working on a wireless link between the brain and muscle groups to help people with paralysis, according to MIT Technology Review. Made of titanium and roughly the size of a matchbox, the device could gather information from the brain at internet speeds. "A radio inside your head" and "the most sophisticated brain communicator in the world" was how Donoghue described it to the news source. That device is also in the early stages of development. While paralysis treatment experts hailed the Kochevar experiment as a breakthrough and the first of its kind in the world, they noted the resulting movements were rudimentary and cautioned that the technology was far from being ready to go from lab bench to widespread clinical use. "We actually have a handle on everything that we need. There are no significant novel discoveries we need to make for the system," Abidemi Bolu Ajiboye, Ph.D., lead author of the study, told CNN. "There were no significant adverse events, the system is safe, so as far as the clinical trial endpoint goes, he has met those." Reversing paralysis is a long-term, complex challenge that requires a combination of medicine, technology and the body's innate power to heal and adapt. If the success of cochlear implants is any guide, BCIs could help restore movement and improve quality of life for countless people. The continued development of these technologies will help people in similar situations and open doors for cures and assistance we once never thought possible.

Paralysis Treatment Set to Be Revolutionized With Neuroprosthetics

A fundamental question has pestered genetic scientists for decades: Do identical twins have the same DNA? Until recently, scientists thought the answer was yes. That's because so-called monozygotic twins form when one egg fertilized by one sperm becomes an embryo and divides in two. (Fraternal twins form from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm.) Slight differences between identical twins — including physical characteristics, personality and health — have been mainly attributed to environmental factors or to chemical markers that attach to genes. These markers act like a dimmer switch on a light and influence how strongly genes turn on or off, according to the University of Miami Miller School of Health. Now, new research published in the journal Nature Genetics offers more to the story. Of 381 pairs of identical twins studied and two sets of identical triplets, scientists found that 15% of them had a "substantial number of mutations" specific to one twin but not the other, the researchers write. Nearly 40 pairs had more than 100 genetic mutations while 38 pairs showed no mutations at all. "One particularly surprising observation is that in many twin pairs, some mutations are carried by nearly all cells in one twin but completely absent in the other," Ziyue Gao, an assistant professor of genetics at the University of Pennsylvania (who was not involved in the research), told staff writer Nicoletta Lanese of Live Science. Building on previous research from members of this group and other scientific teams, this DNA discovery shakes up long-held views about identical twins. To the question, "Do identical twins have the same DNA?" the answer is shifting to no, and it will likely influence future studies that explore the role environmental factors play in disease and human development. "This certainly places a new kind of burden on those who use identical twins to establish the separation between nature and nurture," lead author on the study, Ké¡ri Stefé¡nsson, CEO and founder of the Iceland-based genetics company deCODE, told Catherine Offord of The Scientist. DNA Discovery For his team's research, Stefé¡nsson leveraged the unique population of Iceland, which has been voluntarily participating in DNA studies for decades, according to Science. Because few ancestors account for a large portion of Icelanders compared with other countries, genetic variants are easier to find in genomic sequences. Secondly, people there have kept detailed genealogical records that, for some, go back to the 9th century. Stefé¡nsson's company deCODE manages the records at the website Islendingabok.is. The researchers uncovered mutations that differed between monozygotic twins by taking advantage of what the scientists already knew about the earliest stages of human development. For instance, once fertilized, an egg becomes a zygote that replicates itself by dividing to create more copies of its cells. Sometimes, the enzyme tasked with copying the billions of genetic building blocks of DNA, called base pairs, makes mistakes. Cells have ways of correcting these mistakes, but errors — or mutations — do slip through. Minor ones do no harm and result in indiscernible changes, if any. Major ones can show up as observable differences, such as hair color, or as diseases. Every person starts life this way, including monozygotic twins. The difference is that the zygote divides, eventually becoming two separate embryos. Twinning typically occurs between one and seven days after fertilization, but in rare cases, it can happen up to 13 days later. The longer it takes for the zygote to divide, the more abundant its accumulated cells. To tease out the extent of genetic differences between twins, Stefé¡nsson and his colleagues sequenced the DNA of 381 pairs of twins and two sets of triplets, as well as the DNA from their parents, spouses and children, according to Live Science. This allowed the scientists to pinpoint whether a mutation was handed down to a child. If it was, it meant it had occurred very early in development, before cells had differentiated into either germline cells (found in eggs and sperm) or somatic cells (found in non-reproductive cells). The researchers also analyzed mutations that twins shared but not uniformly across all cells. This phenomenon, known as mosaicism, suggests the pair may have split apart a little later. With these clues in hand, the scientists were able to determine the number of mutations that separated monozygotic twins, their type and the timing of their occurrence. As Stefé¡nsson told Live Science, the study does not conclude where in the genome a mutation occurred. But it offers a caution to avoid overestimating the influence of the environment when, in reality, a genetic mutation may be the source of a given disease or trait. Nature Versus Nurture The degree to which genetics plays a role in making humans human is controversial. Early notions that natural selection and heritable traits directed one's path in life led to theories such as Social Darwinism, which arose in the late 19th century and promoted "survival of the fittest" theories for humans. It justified imperialism and racism and gave rise to pseudoscientific ideas such as eugenics, which rationalized sterilization and genocide. As Robert Plomin explained in a Scientific American article, by the early 20th century, theories around nurture arose from the field of psychology, suggesting that family life played a bigger role. Geneticists pushed back again sometime around the 1960s, and it's been a polite tug-of-war ever since. Enter twin studies. In an article for the Atlantic, Erika Hayaski introduces Nancy Segal, a psychologist at California State University, Fullerton, who is a fraternal twin and has studied twins her entire career. A fascinating case involves the "Jim twins" — Jim Springer and Jim Lewis — who became the subject of Segal's book "Born Together — Reared Apart." Both Jims were adopted by different families and raised in Ohio. They lived just 40 miles apart and did not meet until they were 39 years old — but it was like they had lived similar lives. Both were named James, got migraines, bit their nails, smoked Salem cigarettes, drove light blue Chevrolet cars, had a pet dog named "Toy," married a woman named Linda, got divorced and then married a woman named Betty. "The Jim twins inspired the Minnesota Twins Reared Apart study, which Segal also worked on from 1982 to 1992. This research once again showed surprising similarities in identical twins' habits, interests, intelligence, and religion despite their separate upbringings," wrote Hayaski. Long-term studies of monozygotic twins allow scientists to explore the different ways that genetics and the environment influence human development. The thinking has been that, because identical twins come from the same egg and sperm, researchers can hold genetics as constant and delve into other explanations for behavior, health and appearance. It was believed that differences between them could have more to do with other factors such as diets, exercise, stress, relationships and where they live. But the results of these studies are not so black and white. Over time, scientists have seen the lines between nature and nurture blur, and although debates continue, they are more nuanced. "A strict dichotomy between genes and environment is no longer relevant; they work in concert," said Segal.

Do Identical Twins Have the Same DNA?

Understanding the human brain may be the most difficult challenge of them all because we're asking the brain to understand itself. The more you think about it, the more convoluted it seems. Self-understanding never comes easy! Take, for example, the brain myths that persist in pop culture, like the left-brain, right-brain myth. Perhaps the most popular — and the most exasperating to neuroscientists — is the 10% brain myth. Untapped Superpowers Hollywood loves the theory that we only use 10% of our brain, and it is easy to understand why. One of the more recent depictions of this theory came in the 2014 Scarlett Johansson film "Lucy." When Johansson's character got a brain boost to 100%, not only could she learn Chinese in an instant and beat up the bad guys, she could also throw cars with her mind, says WIRED. How awesome is that? Hollywood has been exploring the notion that we're only using small parts of the human brain for decades, with WIRED taking note of "Flight of the Navigator" (1986), "Defending Your Life" (1991), and more recently 2011's "Limitless," while Psychology Today adds the 1996 film "Phenomenon" to the list. Hollywood loves stories about superpowers, especially when any ordinary person might have them. But really, we love it. Who wouldn't want to suddenly become a genius who can also throw cars with their mind? Nagging Little Doubts Sadly, we have to throw a little cold water on the 10% brain myth. And we can't even pick up the water glass with our minds. The first little doubt we might have is that even if the myth were true, how would we know? The only way to prove it would be to find someone who uses their whole brain — and shows it by being 10 times as smart as everyone else. To be sure, some people are exceptionally sharp, but 10 times normal? What would that even mean? As Scientific American points out, there are other facts about the brain that cast doubt on one of the most popular brain myths. The parts of the human brain are a product of natural selection, which would not evolve capabilities that are never used. Psychology Today expands on this point: One of the basic facts about the brain is that it uses about 20% of the body's energy — which would mean an awful lot of energy going to waste if the brain were always so underutilized. Evolution of a Myth So where did the 10% brain myth come from? Its roots seem to go back a century or more, to pioneering psychologist William James. As Scientific American recounts, alongside his scholarly work, James wrote extensively for the popular audience of his day, and often stated that most people only achieved a small fraction of their potential. For example, reports Nature, in 1907 he wrote that "we are making use of only a small part of our possible mental and physical resources." But he never said 10%, or gave any other specific figure; nor did he say that this was due to only using a fraction of the brain. (As opposed to, say, either insufficient effort or misdirected efforts). But self-help gurus are not a 21st century invention, and according to Psychology Today a self-help ad was promoting the 10% myth as early as 1929. The myth got a big boost in 1936, adds Scientific American, when an introduction to Dale Carnegie's immensely popular self-help book "How to Win Friends and Influence People" included the 10% figure, attributing it to William James. The 10% estimate may also have been reinforced, according to Psychology Today, by brain probe research pioneer Wilder Graves Penfield, who found that only about 10% of his probe tests produced a direct response (such as wiggling a toe). Penfield never said that the other 90% of the brain was doing nothing, only that it didn't respond to probes in any obvious, direct way. So don't expect any new miracle drug or brain surgery technique to turn you into a super genius, much less allow your brain to give cars a toss. But examining myths, and how they arise and persist, is one more way that the brain can indeed study itself.

Society's Obsession With the 10% Brain Myth

Key Takeaways The left and right brain hemispheres control different functions, but aren't responsible for personality. Analytical and verbal tasks are handled by the left brain, while the right half is responsible for perception and language context. Studies show that both sides of the brain share the load — there is no "dominant" side.The left brain right brain myth stems from the common idea that your dominant personality traits are related to which side of your brain has more control. Supposedly, left brained people are more logical, while right brained people are more creative. This popular idea has been around for more than 200 years and has proliferated in the age of BuzzFeed personality quizzes, but it simply isn't true. In reality, people use both parts of the brain equally, and logic and creativity are not mutually exclusive.Mixing Fact with FictionIt's true each hemisphere of the brain controls different functions, but this fact doesn't relate to personality. The misleading idea of left vs. right brained people originates from science and has become fictionalized over time.Take The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, for example. Robert Louis Stevenson's fictional characters represented the duality of human nature and explored the idea of a logical left brain (reasonable Dr. Jekyll) competing with an emotional right brain (instinctual Mr. Hyde).People love to learn about their own psychology, and they crave definitive answers. We love classification schemes like astrology, Myers-Briggs and endless personality quizzes, even though, according to Inc., calling yourself "left brained" or "right brained" is totally meaningless.What's Really Happening on Each Side of the BrainIt's not all fantasy. Certain areas of the brain do manage particular functions, such as movement and sight. For example, the left side of your brain controls your right arms and legs, and vice versa.In the 1800s, neurologists Broca and Wernicke determined that their patients who were having trouble communicating had damage to the left temporal lobes, which suggested that the left brain controlled language, as explained by TedEd.Additionally, Nobel Prize-winning research by Roger Sperry demonstrated in the 1960s that each hemisphere of the brain specializes in certain tasks. By studying epilepsy patients who have undergone a procedure that separates the left and right hemispheres of the brain, Sperry determined the left side of the brain handles analytical and verbal tasks, while the right half takes care of the spatial perception tasks and contributes emotional context to language.Sperry explained, "'The great pleasure and feeling in my right brain is more than my left brain can find the words to tell you,'" according to Nobelprize.org.The results of this study and others have been misunderstood to link brain lateralization with individual personality traits, such as left brained people being logical and right brained people being perceptive. But according to Harvard Health blog, if you performed a CT scan, MRI or autopsy on the brain of a mathematician and compared it to the brain of an artist, you probably wouldn't see a difference.In fact, a 2013 University of Utah study on brain lateralization examined the brains of more than 1,000 people and found no evidence for people having a dominant side of the brain. Even though each side of the brain does more work for certain functions, such as language being localized on the left and attention on the right, this doesn't vary by person. All of the study participants, whether they were engineers or musicians, used their entire brain equally, debunking the left brain right brain myth.The Dangers of These MisconceptionsSo-called left brained people are described as: logical, analytical, and detail-oriented. Their worldview is objective and factual, so they are good at math, engineering and other fact-based tasks and careers. Right brained people are considered: creative, perceptive, intuitive, freethinkers. Their worldview is subjective and expressive, so they're destined for creative tasks and careers.These distinctions may limit your potential. Yes, some people are especially logical or creative, but that doesn't mean one side of their brain is more dominant than the other. Many logical tasks require creativity, and creative works are often rooted in logic. Thinking of people's brains and personalities in such a divisive framework is false and restricting. Embrace what you're good at and let all parts of the brain do the work.AI may offer insight into how our brains develop, age, and change. Discover how.

The Left Brain Right Brain Myth: Is It True?

The medical and health challenges of human spaceflight are as demanding as the more obvious technological challenges of spacecraft design. Rocket science is rooted in basic physics, while space medicine must deal with the full complexity of the human organism and its environment. And nothing is more complex than the human mind, which makes the psychological effects of space travel the trickiest and the least fully understood aspect of the entire enterprise of space flight. With psychological stress, psychosomatic illness and instances of potentially dangerous behavior, space flight imposes human challenges that could lead to catastrophic mishaps. Yet, at the same time, the experience of space flight can be healthful, even spiritually moving. Human Factors A NASA discussion of the human body in space identifies four major challenge areas for space medicine. Two of them — space radiation and changes in gravity — deal with specific environmental conditions that spacecraft and their crews encounter and must be able to deal with. Third is the hostile and closed environment, which involves other physical features of the space environment, as well as a spacecraft's onboard environment that allows the crew to survive. Aboard a spaceship, there is no opening a window to let the bad air out. Everything has to recirculate. The fourth challenge area is isolation and confinement — which goes straight to the psychological dimension. In space, you are a long, long way from home, and there is nowhere you can go to get away from your crew mates. These conditions are not unique to space travel either. Submarine crews and Antarctic researchers are also exposed to isolation and confinement. But in space, it all comes together, from radiation and gravity changes to confinement in a tin can, and these conditions persist until you return to Earth. Psychosomatic Illness and Mass Delusion So far, no space mission has been lost due to psychological breakdown or disorders. But over the years, there have been incidents that hint at the potential psychological risks of space flight. According to Scientific American, a 1970s-era Russian mission was cut short when the crew reported a strong odor aboard their Soyuz spacecraft. No physical cause was ever found, and it has been suggested that mass "delusion" was the culprit. Just as psychosomatic illness can produce real symptoms with no detectable physical cause, the crew may have reacted to the stress of the mission by a shared but spurious experience of smelling "something off." In another case, when a payload specialist aboard a U.S. Shuttle mission became frustrated by the failure of an experiment, he briefly mentioned refusing to return to Earth. Astronaut Henry Hartsfield Jr. related that a crew had "one payload specialist that became obsessed with the hatch" and even once said, "You mean all I got to do is turn that handle and the hatch opens and all the air goes out?" Hartsfield noted, "It was kind of scary â€¦ so we began to lock the hatch." Ground Control to Major Tom  These psychological challenges of space flight are not entirely a surprise. Indeed, popular culture even foresaw them. As Groovy History recounts, David Bowie's classic hit "Space Oddity," inspired by the film 2001: A Space Odyssey, was released in July 1969, a few days before Apollo 11 left for the Moon. The lyrics powerfully capture the psychological effects of space travel, especially the loneliness of watching Earth recede into the distance. (And, as the American Psychological Association notes, we do not yet know the psychological effects of watching the blue dot dwindle into a star-like speck as it would for the crew of a mission to Mars.) Yet, even as the stresses, fears and vast loneliness of space flight weigh on our imagination, studies have also indicated that space flight has characteristics that are salutogenic, contributing positively to health and well-being, according to Scientific American. A survey of astronauts and cosmonauts even found that space travel is "a meaningful experience whose effects endure for some time postflight." And, in a way, this fact brings us full circle. Space travel is, after all, a creation of the human mind: We go because we are willing to take a chance to embrace the vastness of the universe rather than turn our back on it.

Space Psychology: Psychosomatic Illness and Beyond

Our survival instinct kept our cave-dwelling ancestors alive, and now we're stuck with it, for better or worse. In the 21st century, how do we manage our caveman brain, with its primordial sense of fight or flight?  How "Fight or Flight" Works  Back in the caveman days, people faced physical danger, such as an animal attack. According to Harvard Health Publishing, the flight or fight response evolved as a survival mechanism. When the human brain sensed danger, it triggered stress hormones that initiated physiological changes to prepare the body to either get away from the danger (flight) or fight it.  Now, we still have this survival instinct, although we face far fewer physical threats. The trick about fight or flight is that it is triggered by any perceived threat, whether physical or emotional, real or imaginary, according to The American Institute of Stress. Our minds can play tricks on our bodies. As Harvard Health explains, your body can overreact to modern stressors that aren't actually life-threatening, and this can trigger excessive hormones that can be harmful to our health.  While you might not be chased by a lion, modern stressors — such as pressure from finances, work or relationships — can cause chronic stress. When your brain perceives danger, such as an upcoming work deadline, it instantly sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus, which is like your brain's command center. This sets off a series of reactions that provide the body with a burst of energy to quickly thwart the danger. Glands release hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones increase your pulse rate and blood pressure, make you breathe faster and release stored blood sugar and fats from your body. This burst of energy was helpful for the cavemen, but today, it can be unhealthy.  Our Phones Stress Us Out  In the 21st century, our smartphones are constantly by our side, reminding us about all of our responsibilities and the pressures we each face. If your phone rings, you may instantly think of a challenging family situation. When you see a notification on social media, it could trigger thoughts of comparison to your peers and feelings of inadequacy. An email ping will often remind you of work stress.  People are addicted to social media, and it is damaging pathways in our brains. This problem is widespread. As many a 43 percent of Americans are constantly checking social media, and this attachment to devices and the constant use of technology is associated with higher stress levels, according to the American Psychological Association.  Give Your Caveman Brain a Break  Our phones can chronically raise levels of cortisol, the fight-or-flight hormone. This triggers the physiological changes that helped cavemen escape, but when it releases in response to modern emotional stressors, it can make our bodies sick. According to the New York Times, just having your phone nearby can elevate cortisol levels.  "It's a stress response, and it feels unpleasant, and the body's natural response is to want to check the phone to make the stress go away," David Greenfield, professor of clinical psychiatry at the University of Connecticut School of Medicine and founder of the Center for Internet and Technology Addiction told the New York Times.  But when you check your phone, you'll likely find another stressful notification, which could lead to yet another cortisol spike. Chronically elevated cortisol levels aren't just unnecessary, they are dangerous. The hormone has been associate with increased risk of significant health problems, including obesity, depression, Type 2 diabetes and fertility issues, among others.  In the 21st century, the ultimate survival strategy goes against our instinct: Put down your phone.

21st Century Survival Instinct

This time of year, mutants are on the hunt for their next victims. They're influenza viruses, genetic shape-shifters that can transform into new strains in order to evade the human immune system. Highly contagious, these viruses are among the top 10 leading causes of death in the United States, right behind diabetes, according to Medical News Today. Last year, the flu hospitalized more than 900,000 Americans and killed 80,000, according to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Fortunately, researchers around the world are working on medical advances to develop new flu detection and prevention techniques. From molecules that glow when they attach to viruses, to a new FDA-approved drug that can eradicate the pathogen in a day, future flu medicines could save thousands of lives.   Hunting for Hidden Mutants   There's a reason doctors call it "flu season," noted the CDC. Although the influenza virus is present year-round, it generally peaks between December and February, with the most cases appearing in February. But finding it before it wreaks havoc isn't easy. The virus is notoriously shifty, said the CDC. Tiny genetic changes occur constantly within these organisms as they multiply inside individuals and spread throughout a population. Over weeks and months, the changes accumulate to form new flu strains. This means that previously infected or vaccinated people who've built up warrior proteins, called antibodies, to combat last year's flu strain don't have them for this year's strain. Occasionally, the genetic change is so big and abrupt that it can cause a pandemic, as it did back in 2009, when the H1N1 virus — otherwise called the swine flu — spread throughout the world.   These never-ending genetic mutations make flu detection a challenge. Although doctors have a range of tests available to confirm whether someone has the flu, none are perfect. The fast ones produce results in under 20 minutes, but are only about 50 to 70 percent accurate, said CBS News. The more accurate tests take several hours or even days to produce results. Some research groups have been working to develop faster, more accurate diagnostics. Last year, scientists at the University of Notre Dame released a study in which they developed a test and that detects the enzyme neuraminidase, which is found on the surfaces of influenza viruses. The test is made of engineered molecules designed to glow red under a laser when they attach to the neuraminidase enzyme, confirming the presence of the virus. The molecules glow blue if they bind with antiviral drugs such as Tamiflu or Relenza, that inhibit the enzyme and prevent the virus from gaining a foothold.   Flu tests are not common, though. Typically, they're given to patients who may be at risk for developing life-threatening infections. They're also used in situations where doctors need to determine the cause of a local, isolated outbreak. But if doctors had a quick, accurate test that not only detected the flu but also indicated whether the prescribed antiviral drug was taking effect, it could help drive more targeted treatments.   Engineering Mutant Warriors   Better flu treatments are in the works. At the end of October 2018, the Federal Drug Administration approved a new flu medicine developed in Japan that stops the influenza virus in just one dose. Called Xofluza, the drug targets an enzyme, called endonuclease, that the virus relies upon to make genetic copies of itself. That approach is similar to how the common anti-flu drug Tamiflu works, said PBS News Hour. It also blocks an enzyme (in this case, neuraminidase) that helps the flu virus replicate. The difference is that patients need only take one dose of Xofluza — compared to two daily doses of Tamiflu over five days — quickly reducing flu symptoms and the risk of infections.   As any doctor will tell you, the best defense against the flu is to get vaccinated. But because strains are always mutating, vaccines aren't always effective. Scientists must make educated guesses early in the year, well before flu season, about how to formulate the vaccine. Sometimes they miss the mark. According to CNBC, flu vaccines have ranged in effectiveness.   Earlier this year, two research teams said they were close to developing a universal flu vaccine that would be effective against all strains, noted Scientific American. One team, led by scientists at the University of California, Los Angeles, has engineered molecules to hit flu viruses with a double whammy: They trigger the body's immune system to create antibodies and also encourage it to produce disease-fighting white blood cells called T cells. Conventional vaccines elicit antibodies but not T cells. Having all hands on deck, so to speak, would mount a more robust attack against any flu virus attempting to infiltrate a new host.   Another team, this one led by scientists at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York City, has taken a different approach. After studying flu viruses, they made important discoveries about how viruses are able to mutate, which has to do with surface structures that look something like heads of broccoli covering the ball-shaped virus. It turns out the genetic mutations occur in the broccoli-like heads, but the stalk-like structure doesn't mutate at all. Conventional vaccines target the head. But the Mount Sinai team figured out a way to design a vaccine that targets the stalk. They think a universal vaccine is just years away, reported CNBC. Take Care of Yourself Each fall and winter, the flu rears its ugly head. But as medical advances shed new light on how the flu virus works, better detection, treatments and vaccines will come into focus. For now, take care to get vaccinated and pay special attention to children, the elderly, pregnant women and people with certain chronic health conditions, who are at the highest risk.    

Medical Advances Are Pushing the Future of Flu Detection

Maybe we're all just batteries. That's the bad news for Keanu Reeves' Neo, who wakes up from a chemically-induced slumber and discovers he's nothing more than a pack of double-A's connected to a massive power station run by evil robot overlords in the dystopian sci-fi film "The Matrix." But what if the power potential of human electric current wasn't so post-apocalyptic? As the International Energy Agency notes, global demand for power rose 2.3% in 2018, which represents the biggest increase in the last decade. Ever since Ben Franklin first decided that flying kites in dangerous weather was solid scientific practice, humans have been finding new ways to use electricity — and discovering that demand never stops. The bad news? You're no coppertop. The better news? Bioelectricity is essential to life — and may drive the future of human development. A Shocking History Harvesting electricity from human activity is nothing new. As Knowable Magazine notes, breathing can produce more than 0.80 watts, body heat can generate up to 4.8 watts, and the motion of your arms creates a stunning 60 watts of power. But the notion of electricity as fundamental to biological life isn't quite so clear-cut. According to Quartz, while there were some experiments measuring human electrical currents in the mid-1920s, it's wasn't until 1949 that Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley identified the movement of ions across cell nerve membranes. The pair took home a Nobel Prize for their work, but this electric revolution was quickly outpaced by the double-helix discovery of DNA. For decades, genes became the best-fit scientific foundation for biology, while electricity research was short-circuited. Then, in 1976, Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann developed a tool capable of circumventing bioelectricity's biggest problem: studying ion movements without killing their cellular transport mediums. And later, in 2012, Richard Nuccitelli created a device sensitive and subtle enough to track human electric currents on skin, and discovered that, when skin cells are wounded, they emit an "injury current" that calls for help from other cells. The larger the wound, the bigger the current — and the current decreases with age. Other work found that charges inside embryo cells significantly affected development. As NOVA states, "Researchers overwhelmingly agree that bioelectric currents are essential to nerve and muscle function." Positive Thinking With the human nervous system constantly generating a fluctuating electric current, why can't we all just plug in and power up? It all comes down to the two halves of electric potential: positive and negative charges. The electricity we're most familiar with — the kind Franklin flew kites for and that powers our smartphones, dishwashers and light bulbs — depends on the flow of negatively-charged electrons to produce a current. Meanwhile, in our bodies, it's the movement of positively-charged ions — such as potassium, sodium and calcium — passing through cell membranes that create electric potential. And while this variable voltage is essential to keep hearts beating, limbs moving and minds functioning, it's not great for typical electrical applications. For example, when animal cells take in sodium and chloride ions and discharge potassium ions, the result is a voltage between -40 to -80 mV across membranes, significantly less than a single watch battery. However, as it turns out, human electric current offers significant potential for internal applications. Current Applications The biggest potential for human-produced power? Improved healing. Studies published in the journal Advances in Wound Care have shown that supplementing the body's electric current with outside electrical stimulation can help to reduce the recovery time needed for bedsores, which are some of the most difficult wounds to mitigate, let alone fully heal. Similar work has shown improvements in healing bone fractures. Next on the list? Cancer. While research in the 1920s demonstrated a connection between changing electric gradients and cancerous tumors, cell mutations are the most commonly cited cause of cancer concerns. Now, there's speculation that misregulation of electric currents may lead to cellular communication challenges — in effect, cells "forget" they're part of a larger network and begin acting selfishly by hoarding resources and growing out of control. Research from the University of Nottingham found that biologically-generated currents underpin specific cancer cell behaviors, and new techniques using a combination of gene therapy and light-activated ion channels have seen success treating cancer in tadpoles. However, despite steady progress, challenges remain. Human genomes are far more complex than those of rats or tadpoles, and gene therapies face significant regulatory challenges. Electric treatments for wound healing also struggle with standardization — how long should currents be applied to wounds for maximum effect without causing secondary damage? At what voltage? Using what type of device? Is alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) safer? More effective? The result is a kind of cautious optimism. While bioelectric benefits are grounded in solid science, more testing and research is necessary to standardize and streamline medical processes. The Ion Imperative Bioelectric research offers the tantalizing potential to tap the inherent power of the human nervous system, but we're not there yet. Still, there's good reason to be optimistic. Mike Levin of Tufts University, whose lab is on the leading edge of human electric current research, puts it simply: "Understanding the bioelectricity, biomechanics, and transcriptional circuits that allow cells to cooperate toward large-scale goals is the key to regenerative medicine, birth defects, cancer reprogramming, aging, synthetic bioengineering, and even new AI." Put simply? We're not batteries — thanks to positive bioelectric potential, we're even better.

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